If...Then Algorithmic Power and Politics · 第 163 页

1. Within scholarship on computational systems, previous research emphasizing a “values in design” perspective includes discussions about the politics of search engines (Introna & Nissenbaum, 2000; Zimmer, 2008), cookies (Elmer, 2004), knowledge infrastructures (Knobel & Bowker, 2011; Bowker & Star, 2000), and game design (Flanagan & Nissenbaum, 2014). “Values in design” approaches typically hold that technology raises political concerns not just in the way it functions but also because the ways in which it works often seem to be at odds with people’s expectations (Introna & Nissenbaum, 2000: 178).

1. For a good discussion of the concept of government and governmentality, see Michel Senellart’s overview in Foucault, 2007: 499–507.

1. For his conceptualization of government in his College de France lectures, Foucault draws heavily on the anti-Machiavellian writer Guillaume de La Perrière and his work Le Miroir politique, contenant diverses manières de gouverner (1555). Despite characterizing La Perrière’s writing as boring compared to that of Machiavelli, Foucault sees great merit in La Perrière’s way of conceptualizing government as being concerned with the relationship between men and things (with an emphasis on relationship).

1. As Bröckling et al. point out, such technical means may, for instance, include social engineering strategies embedded in various machines, medial networks, and recording and visualization systems (2011: 12).

1. Foucault’s thinking on subjectivation and power relations changed somewhat throughout his career. Whereas his earlier work conceptualized subjects as “docile bodies” shaped by disciplinary processes of power, his later works focused on what he termed “technologies of self,” whereby subjects are seen as much more self-suficient in terms of shaping their conditions of living.

1. David Golumbia (2009) makes a similar argument that computation can be understood as an “ideology that informs our thinking not just about computers, but about economic and social trends.”

1. htp://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0523m9r

1. As Law & Singleton usefully break the notion of the multiple down: “it is most unlikely that whatever we are looking at is one thing at all. So, for instance, a ‘natural’ reality such as footand-mouth disease is not just seen diferently by vets, virologists and epidemiologists (though indeed it is). It is actually a diferent thing in veterinary, virological and epidemiological practice. It is made or done to be diferent in these diferent practices. It is a multiple reality” (2014: 384).

Chapter 3

1. See Wendy H.K. Chun (2011) for more on how the Enlightenment vision connects to software.

1. Secrecy has long been a topic of concern for disciplines such as sociology (most notably, in the works of Simmel, 1906), anthropology (Bellman, 1984), and philosophy (Derrida & Ferraris, 2001). On the relations between secrecy and transparency, see Birchall (2011).

1. The unknown here is simply understood as lack of knowledge or information. For more on how the unknown can be conceptualized further, see, for example, the extant literature on the notion of ignorance (Gross, 2007; McGoey, 2012; Roberts, 2012; Smithson, 2012). Scholars distinguish among diferent types of ignorance (or lack of knowledge). For example, between known unknowns and unknown unknowns, where the former “denotes knowledge of what is known about the limits of knowledge; there are certain things that we know that we do not know” while the later “refers to a total lack of knowledge” (Roberts, 2012: 217).

NOTES TO PAGES 35–43

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