Digital Capitalism

Capitol. Digital right-wing authoritarianism involves the online communication of topdown leadership, nationalism, the friend/enemy-scheme, violence, and law-and-order politics. Digital authoritarianism is an ideology that helps distracting attention from the real causes of society’s problems and the roles of class, exploitation, and domination in these problems.

Digital fascism means the communication of fascism online as well as fascist groups and individuals’ use of digital technologies as means of information, communication, and organisation. Fascism is a particular form of right-wing authoritarianism that aims at killing the identified enemies by the use of violence, terror, and war. In digital fascism, fascists make use of digital technologies for trying to advance violence, terror, and war as means for the establishment of a fascist society. The scapegoats that fascist ideology constructs and against whom it agitates online include, for example, immigrants, socialists, liberals, intellectuals, experts, and democrats (see section 9.5 in chapter 9).

Digital ideology not just means ideology on the Internet but also ideology of the digital, that is, the digital as ideology. Digital ideology conveys the impression that computing with necessity brings about certain changes of society that cannot be undone or stopped. As a consequence, digital ideology with is fetishistic aura of novelty, speed, and pseudo-radicalness that distracts attention from class, exploitation, domination, and other social relations. Big data fetishism is an example of digital ideology. The ideology of big data assumes that data is the new oil and is bringing about a radically novel society (see section 3.4 in chapter 3; see also section 9.4 in chapter 9). But big data is embedded into capitalist relations, into big data capitalism as aspect of digital capitalism.

Cultural, media, and creative digital labour appears to be less reified and alienated than manual labour, but is often organised as precarious labour that does not provide adequate social, job, and income securities. Such workers form a relatively new stratum of the working class that is highly exploited and confronted with the ideology that their labour is fun and self-determined. Luc Boltanski and Ève Chiapello have in this context coined the notion of the new spirit of capitalism, a kind of reified class consciousness of cultural, media, and digital workers in the age of digital capitalism (see section 3.3 in chapter 3 and section 2.3.4 in chapter 2).

Fake news online is another aspect of ideology in the age of digital capitalism. Fake news is as old as the tabloid press, but in the online world fake news can spread quickly, can be individually targeted, and it is often hard to distinguish if online behaviour in the context of fake news is conducted by humans or algorithms. Right-wing movements try to make use of social media for spreading their propaganda and challenging socialist and liberal political positions and worldviews online. They not just use bots and traditional lobbying methods online, but often also resort to threats, bullying, and hate speech.

316

Conclusion

13.5 Alternatives to Digital Capitalism

There are two major alternatives to digital capital (see section 2.4 in chapter 2): on the one hand, the renewal of the movement of co-operatives and self-managed companies in the form of platform co-operatives, that is, Internet platforms that are self-managed by users and digital workers; and on the other hand, the creation of public Internet platforms through a network of public service media. Many platform co-operatives do not make it from concept to reality and many soon disappear again.

Digital socialism is the democratic and humanist alternative to digital capitalism. Digital capital is organised and acts globally. Workers, political regulation, and political groups are in contrast predominantly confined to the national level. Marx and Engels argued that struggles for alternatives require internationalism and called for the workers of all lands to unite in a political movement. In order to establish democratic digital socialism as alternative to digital capitalism, the digital workers of all countries have to unite in an international trade digital labour union and a political movement.

Chapter Thirteen | Conclusion

317

Alternatives to Digital Capitalism

accumulation in capitalist society 22–23, 141 role of 29

Adorno, Theodor W. 3, 105–126, 315

advertising 9–10, 31–32, 60–61, 69, 75, 87, 91, 99, 108–111, 129, 131, 148–151, 157–162, 164–170, 172, 191, 194–195, 198–200, 204–205, 207, 209–213, 219–223, 228, 232, 237, 242, 245, 249–250, 252, 261, 272, 274, 279, 286, 288, 292, 295, 306 audience labour, digital labour 162 targeted, crisis 219–223

Advertising: Magic System 198–202

Advertising as Religion: The Dialectic of Technology and Magic 198–202

advertising clients 160, 164 Facebook, economic relationship 164

advertising revenue, global 220

Afrewatch 241

algorithmic auctions 162

as antagonistic social relations 138

matrix 209

with knowledge/communication 142 in society 138 alternatives to digital capitalism 73, 311, 317 Amnesty International 241 Andrejevic, Mark 97, 101, 159, 170, 207, 211 antagonism digital capitalism 13, 22, 24, 30, 63, 71, 99, 121–122, 138, 141, 143, 153, 312 digital productive forces, vs. capitalist relations of production 71–72 anti-fascists 87 anti-racists 87 Apple subvertisement 151 arts, labour productivity in 298 Arts and Humanities Research Council, UK! 179–180 audience labour 157–162 digital labour 159–162 algorithmic auctions 162 creativity 161 personalised advertising 162 on social media 161–162 social relations 161 surveillance 161 targeted advertising 162 authoritarian character in economy 138

Index

authoritarian ideology 85, 111
authoritarianism 30, 84–85, 87, 105, 109, 111, 113–115, 117, 122–123, 181, 225, 315–316 concept of, digital authoritarianism 315 digital 111–119 friend/enemy-scheme 115–117 law-and-order politics 117–119 nationalism 114–115 top-down leadership 113–114 violence 117–119 right-wing 112 model 112
autonomy 55, 89, 91, 95, 122 as element of technological fetishism 95
Benn, Tony 225–226
big data 193–212 analytics 177–192 critique of 97–99
big data capitalism, technologica fetishism 94–96
Boltanski 55, 74, 89–90, 102, Luc
calculation of capital, capitalism as 13–16
capitalism 246–250 as calculation of capital 13–16 commonalities of 14–16 communication 152–153 defining 3–38 digital, alternatives to 317 as entrepreneurial acquisition, modern 11–12 as entrepreneurial creative destruction 12 as formation of society 16–21 modern, as entrepreneurial acquisition 11–12 new spirit of 89–90 patriarchy, slavery, and racism in age of digital capitalism and digital labour 231–232 varieties of 14–16 vs. digital society 119–122
capitalist accumulation 22–23
capitalist crisis 213–219
capitalist relations of production, vs. digital productive forces 71–72
capitalist society accumulation 22, 141 levels 21 structures 21, 141
Central African Republic 245
Chiapello, Eve 55, 74, 89–90, 102
cinema advertising 220 development of global advertising revenue 220 global advertising revenue 220
class analysis 182 in understanding communication 180
class consciousness, history 79–104
co-operatives 317 platform 317
commercial social media 207, 236
commodities, digital culture industry 109
commodity consumption 108, 151, 199
communication 127–156 accumulation 139–143 alienation 137–138 alienation with 142 base/superstructure 129–131 in capitalism 152–153 digital capitalism 143–146 in digital life 127–156 everyday 134 in everyday life 131–137, 152 level, living, distinction between 133 levels of society 133

320

Index

of ideology 146–151, 153

means of 136

primary communication technologies 136

quaternary communication technologies 136

tertiary communication technologies 136
practices 128–129

protest mobilization 224

sector, labour productivity 297

communication structures 128–129 economic/non-economic 129–131 material/non-material 129–131

communication technologies, reification 93–99

Communications: Blindspot of Western Marxism 194–196

communications today, elements in Marx's works 182–183 alternatives 181 class analysis 180 crisis 180 dialectical philosophy 180 global communication 182 praxis communication 182

communicative capitalism antagonisms of 143 role of accumulation in 142

computational social science 42–45 as digital positivism 7, 71

concept of authoritarianism, digital authoritarianism 315

concept of society 128–131

conglomerates 30, 121

construction 30–31, 121, 187, 268

consumer goods purchases 236

consumers 16, 31, 64, 69, 73, 108, 148, 151, 153, 204, 218, 233–234, 236, 249, 280, 315

corporations, digital, transnational 314

cost-per-click bid, Facebook 245

creativity 55, 89, 99, 132, 161, 276, 278, 298, 302, 304

audience labour, digital labour 161

crisis 9–10, 83–84, 177, 181–183, 191, 205, 212–213, 215, 217, 219, 221, 223–225, 227–229, 269, 277, 284, 303, 305 capitalist 213–219 targeted advertising 219–223

critical digital research 177–192

critical marketing 193–212

critical-realist social media research ethics 187–189

Critique of Dialectical Reason 135, 154

Critique of Everyday Life 127–156

critique of quantification 96–99

cultural workers 108

culture industry 3, 32, 105–109, 122, 124, 131, 148–149, 272, 313 subjects, human meaning-making 108

defining capitalism 11–25

Deliveroo’s self-presentation, worker freedom model 57

Democratic Republic of Congo 241, 245, 259–260

dialectical philosophy 147, 180, 182, 191

digital alienation 207–208 matrix 209

digital authoritarianism 111–119 F-scale, concept of authoritarianism 315 friend/enemy-scheme 115–117 law-and-order politics 117–119 nationalism 114–115

Index

321

top-down leadership 113–114
violence 117–119

digital capitalism 311–313 alternatives to 73, 317 antagonisms 30, 143 economic aspects of 313–315 ideological aspects 315–317 media in 105–126 political aspects 315 role of accumulation 29, 142 working class struggles 61–70

digital condition, working class 47 relative surplus-value production 48–49

digital corporations, transnational 314

digital culture industry 108–111 commodities in 109

digital determinism 95, 100

digital fascism 316

digital labour 157–174, 202–207 audience labour 159–162 algorithmic auctions 162 creativity 161 on social media 161–162 surveillance 161 targeted advertising 162 imperialism 255–270 international division of 258–266 productive labour 162–168

digital positivism 3, 7, 9, 70–71, 75, 99–10 124, 148, 153–154, 177–192 social science as, computational critique 71

digital productive forces, vs. capitalist relations of production 71–72

digital society, vs. capitalism 119–122

digital working class struggles 73

disalienation 138, 142

Dolata, Ulrich 31–32, 34 economic/non-economic communication structures 129–131

economy authoritarian character in 138 culture, relationship of 152 humanistic character in 138

energy 30, 54, 119, 121, 277

Engels, Friedrich 3–4, 7, 34–35, 41–78, 82, 103, 125, 155, 197, 212, 252, 259, 268–270, 313, 317

entertainment, labour productivity in 298

entrepreneurial acquisition, modern capitalism as 11–12

entrepreneurial creative destruction, capitalism as 12

ethics, media research, critical-realist social 187–189

EU15 countries 214–215 economic development in 215

everyday communication 74, 134, 137

everyday life 3–4, 6, 74, 92, 108, 127, 129–135, 137, 139–141, 143–152, 154–155, 193, 218, 246

everyday life/communication 134

Everyday Life in Modern World 127 Everyday Life in the Modern World 154 exploitation 5, 10, 12–14, 16, 33, 42, 45, 71–72, 80, 94–95, 122, 137–138, 142, 145–146, 150, 152–153, 159, 169–171, 181, 183, 196–197, 204, 206–208, 211, 214–215, 229, 231, 235, 241, 243, 246–247, 250–251, 256, 258–260, 263–265, 267–268, 278–279, 287, 311–312, 315–316

F-scale concept of authoritarianism, concept of authoritarianism, digital authoritarianism 315

322

Index

Facebook 4, 7, 9–10, 29–32, 42, 60, 64–65, 85, 91, 94–95, 99, 109–111, 149–150, 157, 159, 164–170, 177–178, 184–185, 193–194, 200–205, 207, 209–211, 213, 220–221, 223–224, 229–234, 239–240, 243–246, 249–251, 271, 279–280, 315 advertising clients, economic relationship 164 labour 10, 59–60, 233–234, 239–240, 250 commodity consumption 234 profits 221 suggested cost-per-click bid 245

fake news 87, 91–92, 94, 102, 109, 117, 124–125, 316 online 91–92

fascism 23, 30, 68, 87, 109, 111, 181, 229, 316 digital 316

feminism 59, 74–76, 158, 171, 194, 196, 212, 231, 252, 271 Marxist 196

fetishism 16, 82–83, 94, 97, 99–100, 111, 146–147, 172, 196–201, 211, 244, 247, 249, 267 capitalism 146 technological big data capitalism 94–96 features of 95–96

Fetishism of Commodity and its Secret Forms 196–198

Fisher, Eran 55, 74, 171, 204, 207–208, 211, 213, 229, 271, 302

formation of society, capitalism as 16–21

forms of ownership 259

Foxconn, absolute surplus-value production at 49–53

Frankfurt School 13, 198

friend/enemy-scheme in digital authoritarianism 115–117 element of right-wing authoritarian ideology 85

Fuchs, Christian 1, 3–4, 8–9, 13–14, 20–21, 32, 37, 68–69, 72, 83, 94, 98–99, 105, 111, 125, 127, 145–146, 151, 157, 162, 164, 171, 173, 175–176, 196, 198, 201, 204–205, 211, 216–218, 223, 227, 238–239, 245–246, 255–256, 258, 271, 273–274, 277, 279–280, 285–287, 292–294, 299, 316–317

German economy, monetary expression of labour-time 288

Gesellschaftsformation; see Formation of society

global advertising revenue 220

global communication 182

global gross market value, over-the-counter derivatives in world GDP 218

Google play labour 53–56 profits, development of 221

Greater London Council 225

Harvey, David 21–23

Heilbroner, Robert L. 23–25

history, class consciousness and 79–104

Hours of Work (Commerce and Offices) Convention 66

Hours of Work (Industry) Convention 66

household management 236–237

housework 59–60, 72, 74, 231–237, 240, 243–244, 246–247, 249, 251 commodity consumption 234 digital labour and 232–239

The Housing Question 41, 73–74

human meaning-making 108

humanistic character in economy 138 ideology communication of 146–151, 153 as reified class consciousness 80–83 reified consciousness 79–88

Index

323

imperialism digital labour 255–270 division of labour 257–258

industry 3, 10, 30–32, 48–49, 54, 64, 75, 94–96, 105–109, 120–122, 124, 131, 144, 148–149, 167–168, 172, 177, 205, 219, 223, 245, 261, 264, 271–274, 276–277, 279, 281, 283, 285, 287, 289, 291–294, 296, 300, 313

information economy 271–305

information industry, labour theory of value 277–295

information sector, labour productivity 297

information society, knowledge workers in 93–94

intellectual workers 93

international, digital labour division 71

International Association of Workers 225

International Day Against Fascism and Antisemitism 87

international division of digital labour 258–266

International Labour Organization 66, 265

International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities 306–308

Internet 1, 17–19, 21–24, 40, 45, 63, 71, 74, 76, 79, 82–84, 99, 103, 106, 108, 113, 123, 125, 136, 150, 156, 158, 163, 183, 191, 193, 195–196, 201, 203, 205–206, 216, 223–224, 233–234, 237, 246–247, 251, 262–263, 275, 282, 285–286, 293, 309, 313, 315–317, 328–329, 331 global advertising revenue 220 reified consciousness 84–88

Jhallly, Sut 194, 198–202, 212, 252

Johnson, Boris 116

journalism, reification 88–92

knowledge/communication, alienation with 142

knowledge workers, in information society 93–94

labour, characteristics of 248

labour productivity 295–299 communication sector 297 information sector 297 manufacturing 50

labour theory of value 271–305
information industry 277–295

law-and-order politics, in digital authoritarianism 117–119

Lazer, David 42, 76

leadership 85–86, 93, 99, 113, 122, 226, 316

Lefebvre, Henri 3–4, 6, 34, 127–137, 139–140, 142–155, 311, 315

levels of capitalist society 21

levels of society 133

Livant, Bill 157

Livingstone, Ken 225

Lukács, Georg 3, 79–104 on journalism 88–89 technological fetishism, big data capitalism 94–96

magazines 131, 136, 160, 220, 264
global advertising revenue 220

Malawi 245

Manifesto of Computational Social Science 43, 74

manufacturing 30–31, 48, 50–51, 53–54, 93, 121, 242, 260–262, 264, 267, 276, 293–294, 306 labour productivity growth 50

324

Index

Marx, Karl 3, 16–21, 47, 76–77, 103, 125, 155, 172, 181–184, 194–198, 212, 229, 252, 270, 277–295, 304 Fetishism of Commodity and its Secret Forms 196–198

Marxism 34, 75–76, 125, 127, 129–130, 147, 155, 158, 172–173, 194, 212, 253, 271

Marxist feminism 158, 196, 231, 271

material/non-material communication structures 129–131

matrix of digital alienation 209

McDonald’s 114, 200

means of communication 136 primary communication technologies 136 quaternary communication technologies 136 quinary communication technologies 136 secondary communication technologies 136 tertiary communication technologies 136 types of 136

media in digital capitalism 105–126

media research ethics, critical-realist social 187–189

militarism, in right-wing authoritarian ideology 86

mobilization of protest, forms of communication in 224

modern capitalism, as entrepreneurial acquisition 11–12

Mosco, Vincent 35, 97, 181, 190–192, 213, 229

Murdock, Graham 157, 159, 172, 303

nationalism 23, 84–86, 99, 109, 111–112, 122–124, 142, 181, 229, 244, 250, 316 in digital authoritarianism 114–115 element of right-wing authoritarian ideology 86

nationalisms online, reified consciousness on Internet 84–88

new nationalisms online 84–88 reified consciousness on Internet 84–88

new spirit of capitalism 89–90

New Unionism 63

news, fake 87, 91–92, 94, 102, 109, 117, 124–125, 316 online 91–92

newspapers 41, 109, 136, 144, 162, 188, 220, 299 global advertising revenue 220

OccupyMedial The Occupy Movement and Social Media in Crisis Capitalism 224, 245, 276, 300

online fake news 91–92

outdoor advertising, global revenue 220

Outlines of Critique of Political Economy 41, 47, 74

over-the-counter derivatives, world GDP, global gross market value 218

ownership, forms of 259

patriarchy 246–250

personalised advertising, audience labour, digital labour 162

platform co-operatives 317

platform workers 57–59

positivism 3, 7, 9, 42, 44–45, 70–71, 75, 98–100, 124, 148, 153–154, 177, 179, 181–185, 187, 189, 191

positivist big data analytics 179–181

praxis communication 182

primary communication technologies 136

production, capitalist relations of, vs. digital productive forces 71–72

Production of Space 34, 128, 154

productive labour, digital labour 162–168 protest, mobilization, forms of communication in 224

Index

325