优步：算法重新定义工作

23.U.S. Federal Trade Commission, “Uber Settles FTC Allegations That It Made Deceptive Privacy and Data Security Claims,” August 15,2017, www.ftc.gov/news-events/press-releases/2017/08/uber-settles-ftcallegationsit-made- deceptive-privacy-data.

24.Sarah Lacy, “Uber Executive Said the Company Would Spend ‘A Million Dollars’ to Shut Me Up,” Time, November 14, 2017, http://motto.time.com/5023287/uber-threatened-journalist-sarah-lacy/.

25.Aaron Deliwiche and Jennifer Jacobs Henderson, “What Is Participatory Culture?” in The Participatory Cultures Handbook, eds. Aaron Deliwiche and Jennifer Jacobs Henderson (New York: Taylor and Francis, 2013), 4.

26.在我的调查研究中，有证据可以表明优步乘客端软件上显示的黑色小车，跟实际在街上跑的可用车辆的真实位置信息并不相符。

第一章做个光鲜亮丽的司机：优步如何利用共享经济神话

1.来自对共享经济运动及其政治影响的重要评论文章，参阅Trebor Scholz, “Uberworked and Underpaid: How Workers Are Disrupting the Digital Economy” (Cambridge, UK: Polity, 2016), and Nick Srnicek,Platform Capitalism (Cambridge, UK: Polity, 2016).

2.法律学者OrlyLobel强调了一个事实，就是关于共享经济的定义并没有一个共识或标准，也没有谁对“我们在生产、消费、工作和学习方面所发生的范畴转移进行了全面完整的总结和描述。”参阅 Orly Lobel,“The Law of the Platform,” University of Minnesota Law Review 101, no. 1(2016): 87–89; Ryan Calo and Alex Rosenblat, “The Taking Economy: Uber,Information, and Power,” Columbia Law Review 117,no. 6 (2017),http://columbialawreview.org/content/the-taking-economyuber-information-and-power/. 将共享经济描述为一种流行的想法，参阅 Caroline Jack,“Imagining the Sharing Economy,” Points, November 21, 2016,https://points.datasociety.net/imagining-the-sharing-economy3a2048469da5.

6.Ann R. Tickamyer, Jennifer Sherman, and Jennifer Warlick, eds., Rural Poverty in the United States (New York: Columbia University Press,2017), 124.

7.Ofer Sharone, Flawed System/Flawed Self (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013), 7; the author cites Challenger, Grey, and Christmas,“More on White-Collar Job Loss,” October 6, 2009, Challenger @Work,http://challenger atworkblog.blogspot.com/2009/10/more-on-whitecollarjob-loss.html.

8.Janice Nittoli, “Our Blue-Collar Great Depression,” Wall Street Journal, August 25, 2010, www.wsj.com/articles/SB1000142405274870402340457542 9864088150270.

9.Barth和同事们写道：“截至2015年，经济复苏已经进入第六个年头后，就业人口比例依然比2007年低了3.6个百分点。”参阅Barth,Davis,Freeman, and Kerr, “Weathering the Great Recession,” 2; 更多关于大衰退对就业率持久影响的讨论请参阅Tickamyer, Sherman, and Warlick, RuralPoverty, 124.

10.Sasha Ingber, “U.N. Investigator on Extreme Poverty Issues a Grim Report—on the U.S.”, NPR Goats and Soda, December 21, 2017, www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2017/12/21/572043850/u-n-investigatoronextreme-poverty- issues-a-grim-report-on-the-u-s.

11.Wendy Chun, “Proxy Politics as Social Cybernetics”（会议报告, Cybernetics Conference, November 18, 2017），Internet Society,进行了网 络直播，直播地址为 https://livestream.com/accounts/9197973/events/7940973/videos/166218044.

12.参见John Cassidy, “Does Tackling Inequality Reduce Growth? No,” New Yorker,February 26, 2014, www.newyorker.com/news/johncassidy/doestackling-inequality-reduce-growth-no; 以及Christian R. Proaño, “A Paradigm Change and the IMF?” Development and Cooperation, January 12, 2016, www.dandc. eu/en/article/imf-economomists-worry-aboutgrowing-inequality.

13.Charlie Savage, “Wells Fargo Will Settle Mortgage Bias Charges,” New York Times, July 12, 2012, www.nytimes.com/2012/07/13/business/wellsfargo- to-settle-mortgagediscrimination-charges.html.

14.Tressie McMillan Cottom, Lower Ed: The Troubling Rise of For-Profit Colleges in the New Economy (New York: New Press, 2017), ch. 9; The Movement for Black Lives, “Platform,” n.d., https://policy.m4bl.org/platform/.

15.Chris Hughes, Fair Shot: Rethinking Inequality and How We Earn (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2018).

16.Todd Haselton, “Mark Zuckerberg Joins Silicon Valley Bigwigs in Calling for Government to Give Everybody Free Money,” CNBC, May 25, 2017,www.cnbc.com/2017/05/25/mark-zuckerberg-calls-for-universalbasicincome-at-harvard-speech.html.

17.Eric A. Posner and Glen E. Weyl, “Property Is Only Another Name for Monopoly,” Journal of Legal Analysis (January 31, 2017), https://ssrn.com/abstract=2818494.

18.Jack, “Imagining the Sharing Economy.”

19.Robin Chase, “Bye, Bye Capitalism: We’re Entering the Age of Abundance,”Backchannel, July 16, 2015, https://medium.com/backchannel/see-ya-latercapitalism-the-collaborativeeconomy-is-taking-over-34a5fc3a37cd. Robin Chase也写过一本关于共享经 济的书。

20.Srnicek通过观察经济增长衰退的周期循环，以及其在当今合作

经济中再次出现后的表现来跟踪平台资本主义的发展。

21.Nick Srnicek, “Platform Capitalism” (Cambridge, UK: Polity, 2016).

22.Jay Shambaugh and Ryan Nunn, “Why Wages Aren’t Growing in America,”Harvard Business Review, October 24, 2017, https://hbr.org/2017/10/whywages-arent-growing-in-america.

23.Darrell Etherington, “Uber Crosses the 5 Billion Trip Milestone amid Ongoing Issues,” TechCrunch, June 29, 2017, https://techcrunch.com/2017/06/29/uber-crosses-the-5-billion-trip-milestoneamid-ongoingissues/.

24.2018年3月5日优步公司发给我的电子邮件。

25.Pew Research Center, “America’s Shrinking Middle Class: A Close Look at Changes within Metropolitan Areas,” May 11, 2016, www.pewsocialtrends.org/2016/05/11/americas-shrinking-middle-class-aclose-look-at-changeswithin- metropolitan-areas/.

26.我们在本书后面的内容中可以看到，这些数据跟许多媒体报道的司机的真实收入有很大出入。

27.Studs Turkel, “Working: People Talk about What They Do All Day and How They Feel about What They Do” (New York: New Press, 1997); John Bowe, Marisa Bowe, Sabin Streeter, eds., Gig (New York: Three Rivers Press, 2001).

28.Lawrence F. Katz and Alan B. Krueger, “The Rise and Nature of Alternative Work Arrangements in the United States, 1995–2015,” National Bureau of Economic Research, June 18, 2017, https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/lkatz/files/katz\_krueger\_cws\_resubmit\_clean.

29.U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Why This Counts: Measuring ‘Gig’ Work,”March 3, 2016, https://blogs.bls.gov/blog/tag/contingent-workers/.

30.Lauren Weber, “Some of the World’s Largest Employers No Longer Sell Things, They Rent Workers,” Wall Street Journal, December 28, 2017, www.wsj.com/articles/some-of-the-worlds-largest-employers-no-longersellthings- they-rent-workers-1514479580.

31.Vili Lehdonvirta, “Considering the Taylor Review: Ways Forward for the Gig Economy,” Policy and Internet Blog, July 21, 2017, http://blogs.oii.ox.ac.uk/policy/considering-the-taylor-review-ways-forwardfor-the-gigeconomy/.

32.参见Barth, Davis, Freeman, and Kerr, “Weathering the Great Recession.”

33.即使那些跟优步在同一时期出现的公司，比如爱彼迎，或者早于优步的公司，比如TaskRabbit ，都处于作为共享经济代表的优步的阴影之下。关于“Uber for X”现象的讨论可参考Nathan Heller, “Is the GigEconomy Working?” New Yorker, May 15,2017,www.newyorker.com/magazine/2017/05/15/is-the-gig-economy-working.

34.Juggernaut, “Uber for X Startups That Failed— Are You Making the Same Mistakes?” April 28, 2015, http://nextjuggernaut.com/blog/11-uberfor-xstartups-that-failed-are-you-making-the-same-mistakes/.

35.Aaron Smith, “Gig Work, Online Selling and Home Sharing,” Pew Research Center,November17,2016,www.pewinternet.org/2016/11/17/gigworkonline-selling-and-home-sharing/.

36.Sara Ashley O’Brien, “Airbnb’s Valuation Soars to \$30 Billion,” CNN Tech,August 8, 2016, http://money.cnn.com/2016/08/08/technology/airbnb-30billionvaluation/index.html.

37.Vili Lehdonvirta, “The Online Gig Economy Grew 26% over the Past Year,”iLabour Project, July 10, 2017, http://ilabour.oii.ox.ac.uk/theonline-gigeconomy-grew-26-over-the-past-year/.

38.由共享经济产生的词汇还包括P2P、合作经济等。

39.Uber Under the Hood, “Uber Partners with NAACP to Increase Flexible Work Opportunities,” January 5, 2016, https://medium.com/uberunder- thehood/uber-partners-with-naacp-to-increase-flexible-workopportunities78cfc51695b3.

40.Uber, “Uber | MADD,” www.uber.com/partner/madd/.

41.参见Gabriel Thompson, “What We Talk about When We Talk about the Gig Economy,” Capital and Main, July 27, 2017, https://capitalandmain.com/what-we-talk-about-when-we-talk-about-the-gigeconomy-0727; 关于零工经济中收入波动的调查研究，参阅 JP Morgan Chase, “Paychecks,Paydays, and the Online Platform Economy Big Data on Income Volatility,”February 2016, www.jpmorganchase.com/corporate/institute/reportpaychecks-paydays-andthe-online-platform-economy.htm.

42.Amir Efrati,“Investors Rethink Uber’s Long-Term Value,” The Information, December 7, 2017, www.theinformation.com/investors-rethinkuberslong-term-value.

43.Greg Bensinger, “What Is Uber Really Worth?” Wall Street Journal,November 15, 2017, www.wsj.com/articles/with-two-price-tagsfromsoftbank-what-is-uber-really-worth-1510741802.

44.Harrison Weber, “Uber’s Unreal \$70 Billion Valuation Really Was Unreal,”Gizmodo, December 28, 2017, https://gizmodo.com/uber-s-unreal-70billion-valuation-really-was-unreal-1821633772.

45.Theodore Schleifer, “Uber’s Latest Valuation: \$72 Billion,” Recode，February 9, 2018, www.recode.net/2018/2/9/16996834/uberlatestvaluation-72-billion-waymo-lawsuit-settlement.

46.Valerio de Stefano, “Introduction: Crowdsourcing, the Gig Economy, and the Law,” Comparative Labor Law & Policy Journal 37, no. 3 (April 24,2016): 2, https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract\_id=2767383.

47.共享经济模式的前身更多来自特许经营企业（比如麦当劳和赛百味），而不是行业竞争者（比如出租车）。和网约车司机一样，这些连锁企业的加盟商作为小微企业也要向总公司让渡很大的经营控制权。

48.共享经济中的平台公司跟销售护肤品、化妆品、营养品和其他此类产品的独立分销商网络——例如安利、玫琳凯、雅芳和康宝莱—有着本质的不同。正如犹他大学商学院教授杰西卡·伯奇在2018年1月给我发的一封电子邮件中所写的：“直销代表通常不会认为自己是共享经济的一分子。一些人更倾向于使用‘自由经济’一词。在他们看来，共享经济需要你拥有一个房间或一辆车来与他人共享，但直销对那些即使是一无所有的人同样是开放的。这一套宣扬可以自由无门槛加入的语言体系同样也可能暗示了他们本身就并不拥有任何资产。”

49.Juliet B. Schor, “Collaborating and Connecting: The Emergence of the Sharing Economy,” in Handbook on Research and Sustainable

50.Yochai Benkler, “Sharing Nicely: On Shareable Goods and the Emergence of Sharing as a Modality of Economic Production,” Yale Law Journal 114,no. 2 (November, 2004): 273–358.

51.Alexandra Mateescu, “Who Cares in the Gig Economy?” Points, July 12,2017, https://points.datasociety.net/who-cares-in-the-gigeconomy6d75a079a889. 关于共享经济植根于合作型商业活动，并作为后 者的产物和表征，可参阅社会学家Juliet B. Schor, “On the Sharing Economy,”Contexts 14, no. 1 (2015): 12–19, http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1536504214567860; 也可参阅 Edward T. Walker, “Beyond the Rhetoric of the ‘Sharing Economy,’” Contexts 14, no. 1 (2015): 12– 19,http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1536504214567860; Natasha Singer, “Twisting Words to MTake ‘Sharing’ Apps Seem Selfless,” New York Times, August 8, 2015; Caroline Jack, “Imagining the Sharing Economy,”Points, November 21, 2016, https://points.datasociety.net/imagining-thesharing-economy- 3a2048469da5.

52.Axel Bruns, Belogs, Wikipedia, Seocond Life,and Beyond: From Production to Produsage (New York: Peter Lang, 2008), 3, 同样参见12章。

53.Emma Paling, “Wikipedia’s Hostility to Women,” Atlantic, October 21,2015, www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2015/10/how-wikipediaishostile-to- women/411619/; 更多关于女性作者在维基百科中关于科技和 不公平的文化文本词条方面的贡献，请参阅Alice Marwick,Status Update (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2013), 75; Claudia Wagner et al., “It’s a Man’s Wikipedia? Assessing Gender Inequalityin an Online Encyclopedia,” Cornell University Library, January 26,2015, https://arxiv.org/abs/1501.06307; Lam et al., “WP: Clubhouse?An Exploration of Wikipedia’s Gender Imbalance ”(presentation at WikiSym’11, Mountain View, California, October 3–5, 2011), http://files.grouplens.org/papers/wp-gender-wikisym2011.pdf.

54.Marwick, Status Update, 29–35, 44.

55.Bruns, Blogs, Wikipedia, Second Life, and Beyond, 3.

56.Julia Ticona在2017年8月3日与我的对话。

57.“Anti-Uber Protests around the World, in Pictures,” Telegraph, n.d., www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/picture-galleries/11902080/Anti-Uberprotestsaround-the-world-in-pictures.html.

58.像优步这样的重人力资源型平台通常跟爱彼迎这样的重资产型平台有很大的区别，后者要求用户要有属于自己的房产，虽然优步司机通常也会用自己的或者租来的车加入平台。每个想要维持生活补贴家用的人都可以通过手机软件找到一份零工，比如用Instacart配送杂货，用TaskRabbit搬家，用Handy提供洗衣服务，或者用其他数不清的临时店面寻找工作机会。

59.Philip M. Napoli and Robyn Caplan, “Why Media Companies Insist They’re Not Media Companies, Why They’re Wrong, and Why It Matters,” First Monday 22, no. 5 (May 2017), http://firstmonday.org/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/7051/6124.

60.Erin Griffith, “Memo to Facebook: How to Tell If You’re a Media Company,”Wired, October 12, 2017, www.wired.com/story/memo-tofacebook- howto-tell-if-youre-a-media-company/.

61.Julia Tomassetti, “Does Uber Redefine the Firm? The Postindustrial