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# 算法的陷阱：超级平台、算法垄断与场景欺骗

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Select Committee on European Union “Online Platforms and the Digital Single Market”（April 20, 2016）10th Report of Session 2015-16,paras 65- 93, http://www .publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201516/ldselect/ldeucom/129/129.pdf。

2. 比如，在个人计算机领域，两家超级平台的地位显耀：微软的Windows操作系统与英特尔的微处理器。

第14章 友敌间的互动

1. 也有些公司之间并不存在什么“旧交”，好比一家风投公司突然收购了一家濒临破产的报业企业。

2. Marius Schwartz and David Eisenstadt, “Vertical Restraints,” U.S.Department of Justice Antitrust Division, EPO Discussion Paper 82- 2（1982）, 4, 5; Business Electronics Corp. v. Sharp Electronics Corp.,485 U.S. 717（1988）, 11.

3. “FTC Looks at Google-Apple Board Ties: Report,” Reuters（May 5, 2009）, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-googleappleidUSTRE54403Z20090505. 在FTC宣布将要对谷歌和苹果公司的联 合是否阻碍市场竞争的问题进行调查后不久，埃里克·施密特遂从苹果 公司董事会辞职。另见：https://www.ftc.gov/newsevents/pressreleases/2009/08/statement-bureau-competition-director-richardfeinsteinregarding; “Statement of FTC Chairman Jon Leibowitz Regarding the Announcement That Arthur D. Levinson Has Resigned from Google’s Board,” FTC Press Release（October 12, 2009）, https://www.ftc.gov/newsevents/press-releases/2009/10/statement-ftc-chairman-jonleibowitzregarding-announcement. See Section 8 of the Clayton Act,15 U.S.C. § 9（a）（5）。

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4. 生产互补产品的公司之间可能并不存在直接的生意往来。但是如果一方的市场需求增加，往往另一方也会迎来高涨的需求，如番茄酱与炸薯条。

5. European Commission, Guidelines on the Assessment of NonHorizontal Mergers under the Council Regulation on the Control of Concentrations between Undertakings（October 8, 2008）, para. 5.

6. Ericsson, Ericsson Mobility Report: On the Pulse of the Networked Society（June 2015）, http://www.ericsson.com/res/docs/2015/ericssonmobility-report-june-2015.pdf.

7. comScore, The 2015 U.S. Mobile App Report（September 22,2015）, 5.

8. comScore, The 2015 U.S. Mobile App Report（September 22,2015）, 5.

9. 此处需要强调一下本章中提到的超级平台与一般意义的超级平台 的区别，后者的范围更宽泛，往往囊括了大多数在多边市场运营的线上 平台。可参考欧盟对此的定义，详见：European Commission,Public Consultation on the Regulatory Environment for Platforms,Online Intermediaries, Data and Cloud Computing and the Collaborative Economy（September 24, 2015）, https://ec.europa.eu/digitalagenda/en/news/public-consultation-regulatory-environment-platforms onlineintermediaries-data-and-cloud。

10. Don Clark and Robert McMillan, “Facebook, Amazon and Other Tech Giants Tighten Grip on Internet Economy,” Wall Street Journal,November 5, 2015, http://www.wsj.com/articles/giants-tighten-grip-

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oninternet-economy-1446771732.

11. David McLaughlin, “Google Said to Be under U.S. Antitrust Scrutiny over Android,” Bloomberg（September 25, 2015）, http://www.bloomberg.com /news/articles/2015-09-25/google-said-to-beunder-u-santitrust-scrutiny-over-android-iezf41sg.

12. Statistica, “Number of Available Applications in the Google Play Store from December 2009 to February 2015”（2016）, http://www.statista.com/statistics /266210/number-of-available-applicationsin-thegoogle-play-store/; Statistica, “Number of Available Apps in the Apple App Store from July 2008 to June 2015”（2016）, http://www.statista.com/statistics/263795/number-of-available-apps-in-theapple-app-store/.

13. 一项针对线上App商城最畅销的200个应用程序的研究发现，其中有38个付费应用程序与74个免费下载程序同时在Google Play商店和苹果App Store上架。详见：Mikey Campbell,“Apps No Longer Differentiatorin iOS vs. Android War, Services Next Battleground,” AppleInsider（January 6, 2014）, http://appleinsider.com/articles/14/01/06/apps-no-longer-differentiator-in-ios-vs-androidwar-services-next -battleground。

14. Vangie Beal, “API—Application Program Interface,” Wedopedia（n.d.）, http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/A/API.html.

15. Ron Amadeo, “Google’s Iron Grip on Android: Controlling Open Source by Any Means Necessary,” Ars Technica（October 20,2013）, http://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/10/googles-iron-grip-onandroidcontrolling-open-source-by-any-means-necessary/4/.

16. Ron Amadeo, “Google’s Iron Grip on Android: Controlling Open

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Source by Any Means Necessary,” Ars Technica（October 20,2013）, http://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/10/googles-iron-grip-onandroidcontrolling-open-source-by-any-means-necessary/4/.

17. Ron Adner, Jianqing Chen, and Feng Zhu, “Frenemies in Platform Markets: The Case of Apple’s iPad vs. Amazon’s Kindle,” Harvard Business School Working Paper 15-087（May 6, 2015）.

18. Ron Adner, Jianqing Chen, and Feng Zhu, “Frenemies in PlatformMarkets: The Case of Apple’s iPad vs. Amazon’s Kindle,” Harvard BusinessSchool Working Paper 15-087（May 6, 2015）。这份报告提供了一个经济模型论证了超级平台之间达成竞合关系的动机。回顾电子书市场，“苹果平板计算机iPad的功能远不止电子书阅读器，而亚马逊的Kindle则几近专属电子书阅读器。于是，在均衡状态下，苹果更看重自己的硬件产品销量，而亚马逊会更重视自己的电子书销量。当利润增长点的差距足够大时，在苹果App Store上线Kindle（电子阅读器）App是符合双方利益的选择：亚马逊的电子书销量以及iPad的产品销量会产生一种相互拉动和促进的作用。苹果从iPad销售中的获益将远超自己在电子书市场的损失。但与此同时，同样出于利益的考量，苹果不会让自己的iBook应用程序出现在Kindle上”。

19. Uber, “The Top 10 Facts You May Not Know about Uber Driver Partners”（August 5, 2015）, http://newsroom.uber.com/2015/08/the-top10- facts-you-may-not-know-about-uber-driver-partners/.

20. Brad Stone, “Exclusive: Google Is Developing Its Own Uber Competitor,” Bloomberg（February 2, 2015）, http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-02-02/exclusive-google-anduber-are-going-towar-over-taxis.

21. Brad Stone, “Exclusive: Google Is Developing Its Own Uber

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22. Jack Nicas, “Alphabet Cruises into Ride-Sharing Business,” Wall Street Journal, May 17, 2016, B4.

24. Daisuke Wakabayashi, “Apple Targets Electric-Car Shipping Date for 2019,” Wall Street Journal, September 21, 2015, http://www.wsj.com/articles/apple -speeds-up-electric-car-work-1442857105.

25. “Apple Invests in Chinese Uber Rival Didi Chuxing,” BBC News（May 13, 2016）, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-36283661;“Apple Invests \$1bn in ‘Chinese Uber’ Didi Chuxing,” The Telegraph（May 13, 2016）, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/2016/05/13/apple-invests-lbn-inchinese-uber-didi-chuxing /.

26. NDTV Correspondent, “Google Reportedly Wants More of Its Apps Preinstalled on Android Devices,” Gadgets360（September 29,2014）, http://gadgets.ndtv.com/mobiles/news/google-reportedly-wantsmore-of-itsapps-preinstalled -on -android - devices -599478.

27. Jack Nicas, “Alphabet Cruises into Ride-Sharing Business.”

28. 在欧洲，这种情况的典型例子是占有市场支配地位的企业同时在上下游两个市场从事经营活动，因而拒绝为下游竞争企业提供相关服务。这种不合作行为有违《欧洲联盟运作条约》（Treaty ontheFunctioning of the European Union）第102（c）条款，损害了下游市场的竞争机制。同样惹人生厌的行为还包括拥有市场力量的企业控制了某个重要基础设施的供给，但却在没有客观理由的情况下拒绝其他企业使用该设备。相关文献资料详见：Ariel Ezrachi, EU Competition Law —An Analytical Guide to the Leading Cases, 4th ed.（Oxford: Hart Publishing,2014）, 252。

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29. John Markoff, “Toyota Invests \$1 Billion in Artificial Intelligence in U.S.,” New York Times, November 6, 2015, http://www.nytimes. com/2015/11/06/technology/toyota-silicon-valley-artificial-intelligenceresearch- center. html ?\_r=0; Mui, “Google Is Millions of Miles Ahead of Apple in Driverless Cars.”

30. Markoff, “Toyota Invests \$1 Billion in Artificial Intelligence in U.S.”

31. Jean Tirole, “Comments Made at FT-ETNO Summit 2015,”Financial Times（October 13, 2015）, https://live.ft.com/Events/2015/FTETNO-Summit-2015.

32. Stone, “Exclusive.”

33. Matt Weinberger, “Microsoft Could See an Opportunity to Poke Google in the Eye with Uber Investment,” Business Insider UK（July 31,2015）, http://www.businessinsider.com/microsoft-and-google-areuberinvestors -2015-7.

34. Nathaniel Mott, “Uber Should Fear the Company Formerly Known as Google,” Gigaom（August 11, 2015）, https://gigaom.com/2015/08/11/uber-vs-alphabet-google/.

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35. Weinberger, “Microsoft Could See an Opportunity to Poke Google in the Eye with Uber Investment.”

36. 报告中指出，独立音乐协会声称“YouTube曾威胁该机构，除非 它们答应其提出的不可变更的许可条款，否则将撤掉网站上所有与之相 关的内容”。详见：Paragraph 126, House of Lords, Select Committee on European Union, “Online Platforms and the Digital Single Market”（April 20, 2016）, 10th Report of Session 2015-16, http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201516/ldselect/ldeucom/129/129

37. Coupons.com, Form 10-K for 2014, 15, 17.

38. Facebook, Form 10-K for 2014（2014）, 11.

39. Facebook, Form 10-K for 2014（2014）, 11.

40. Facebook, Form 10-K for 2014（2014）, 11.

41. Facebook, Form 10-K for 2014（2014）, 11.

42. European Commission, “Antitrust: Commission Sends Statement of Objections to Google on Android Operating System and Applications,”press release（April 20, 2016）, http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release\_IP16- 1492\_en.htm.

43. 如果手机厂商希望能在自己生产的设备上预载谷歌的产品，包括Google Play商店和谷歌搜索引擎，谷歌方面要求其不得在这些设备上运行那些已被改造后的安卓系统。对于不少手机制造商来说，谷歌的产品实难割舍。根据《华尔街日报》的报道，亚马逊在2014年推出了搭载安卓系统的手机，但是却未预载那些常见的应用程序（包括谷歌搜索、

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YouTube、谷歌地图和Google Play商店）。事实上，该手机的销量并不 佳。有批评者指出，缺乏可使用的谷歌应用程序是该产品销量遭遇滑铁 卢的关键。详见：NataliaDrozdiak and Sam Schechner, “EU Set to Charge Google over Android Phone Apps: European Commission Focusing on Demand That Phones Load Google Apps,” Wall Street Journal, April 19, 2016, http://www.wsj.com/article\_email/eu-set-to-charge-google-overandroid-1461067383lMyQjAxMTI2MDE5OTAxMjk4Wj。

44. European Commission, “Antitrust: Commission Sends Statement of Objections to Google on Android Operating System and Applications— Factsheet”（April 20, 2016）, http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release\_MEMO-16 -1484\_en.htm.

第15章 提取与俘获

1. 请详见本书第三部分行为歧视与第8章人工智能、上帝视角与电子眼。

2. Riley v. California, 134 S. Ct. 2473, 2489, 189 L. Ed. 2d 430（2014）.

3. “首先，手机会在同一个地方收集许许多多不同类型的信息—地址、留言、药方、银行凭证、视频等。当把这些信息结合起来看时，它们能勾勒出一个鲜活的人物形象。其次，面对同一类型的用户信息，智能手机也可以揭示出更深层次的内涵。1,000张标有拍摄日期、地点和描述的照片可以拼凑起一个人的日常，这比钱夹里的亲密合影要更还原生活。再次，我们可以从手机的日期信息追溯到最早购买手机的那一天，甚至是更早些的时候。可能某人兜里揣着一张便条，提醒自己要致电琼斯先生，但他绝不会随身带着过去几个月来与琼斯先生的聊天记录，因为这些东西早已被存在了手机上。最后，手机的普及性以及人们对其的依赖性已经令它超越了其他外物，成为人们生活中不可或缺的工具。在数字化时代以前，人们通常不会随身携带那些敏感的个人信息。可是现在，人们反而会对那些出门不带手机的人感到稀奇。一份民调显示，近3/4的智能手机用户在大多数时间里会将手机放置在距离自己5英尺以内的范围，其中更有12%的受访者表示自己会在洗澡的过程中使用手机……毫不夸张地说，拥有手机的美国成年人中，有超过90%的人会通过数字化的形式记录自己的生活——从生活琐碎到亲密关系，事无巨细，面面俱到。” Riley v. California, 134 S. Ct. 2473, 2489, 189 L. Ed. 2d430（2014）。

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4. Riley v. California, 134 S. Ct. 2473, 2489, 189 L. Ed. 2d430（2014），at 2490。

5. 出处同上。详见：Brian X. Chen, “Why and How Apple Is Collecting Your iPhone Location Data,” Wired, April 21, 2001, http://www.wired.com/2011/04/apple-iphone-tracking/.

6. Australian Communications and Media Authority. Here, There and Everywhere — Consumer Behaviour and Location Services（December 2012）, 1, http://www.acma.gov.au/webwr/\_assets/main/lib310665/location\_servicesdec2012.pdf.

7. Australian Communications and Media Authority. Here, There and Everywhere — Consumer Behaviour and Location Services（December 2012）, 1, http://www.acma.gov.au/webwr/\_assets/main/lib310665/location\_servicesdec2012.pdf.

8. Jack Nicas, “Google to Increase Frequency, Size of Ads,” Wall Street Journal, May 25, 2016, B4.

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9. Brian See Voo, “Smartphones & You: Who Is（Really）in Control?” Hongkiat（December 3, 2013）, http://www.hongkiat.com/blog/smartphoneyou-who-in-control/; Andrew Munchbach, “Your Smartphone Is Tracking You, and You Said It Was Okay,” BGR（April 20, 2011）, http://bgr.com/2011/04/20/your-smartphone-is-tracking-youand-you-said-itwas-okay/.

10. Australian Communications and Media Authority, Here, There and Everywhere, 18.

11. Alun Williams, “Google Invites Developers to Its Brillo IoT Platform,” Electronics Weekly, October 28, 2015, http://www.electronicsweekly.com/blogs/eyes-on-android/embeddedandroid/googleinvites-developers-to-its -brillo -iot-platform-2015-10/.

12. Marcia Coyle, “Justices Hang Up on Call for Cellphone Location Protection,” National Law Journal, November 9, 2015, http://www.nationallawjournal.com/id=1202741937880/Justices-Hang-Upon-Callfor-Cellphone-Location -Protection#ixzz3r2OQU3pN.

13. “许多用户都不知道，一些应用程序提供商和开发者会将其个人信息数据贩卖给广告商，用于搭建客户档案，以便其开展具有针对性的广告营销以及其他与原应用程序的使用无必然联系的目的……绝大多数依靠用户地理位置信息提供服务的应用程序虽会在采集用户信息之前征求用户的同意，但是它们的措辞却难以令用户完全理解这‘同意’背后的真实意味。” Taylor Wessing,“‘Toto, We’re Not in Satnav Anymore’: Doesthe Law Protect Mobile Users from a Misuse of Their LocationData?”（April 2011）,http://united-kingdom.taylorwessing.com/download/article \_satnav.html#.Vhw3oRNViko.

14. Craig Timberg, Nancy Scola, and Andrea Peterson, “Uber Executive

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