算法的陷阱：超级平台、算法垄断与场景欺骗

第2章 新经济现实：大数据分析的崛起

1. Charles Fishman, The Wal-Mart Effect: How the World’s Most Powerful Company Really Works — and How It’s Transforming the American Economy（New York: Penguin, 2006）.

1. Citri-Lite Co. v. Cott Beverages, Inc., No. 1:07-CV-01075 OWW,2011 WL 4751110, 5（E.D. Cal. Sept. 30, 2011）aff’d, 546 F. App’x 651（9th Cir. 2013）.

1. Steven Barrison, “Study Proves It: Walmart Super-stores Kill Off Local Small Businesses,” Daily News, May 4, 2011.

1. Wal-Mart Stores, Inc., 2006 WL 695801, 17（S.E.C. No-Action Letter,March 16, 2006）（quoting Anthony Bianco and Wendy Zellner, “Is Wal-Mart Too Powerful?” BusinessWeek, October 6, 2003）.

1. Wal-Mart Stores, Inc., 2006 WL 695801, 17（S.E.C. No-Action Letter,March 16, 2006）（quoting Anthony Bianco and Wendy Zellner, “Is Wal-Mart Too Powerful?” BusinessWeek, October 6, 2003）.

1. Justin Lahart, “How Wal-Mart’s Store Closings Paint Wider Retail Picture: Shift to Online Sales Shows Difference between Retailing’s Haves and Have-Nots,” Wall Street Journal, January 15,2016.

1. Wal-Mart Stores, Inc., Form 10-K（2015）, 23, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/104169/000010416915000011/wmt

1. Wal-Mart Stores, Inc., Form 10-K（2015）, 23, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/104169/000010416915000011/wmt

1. Wal-Mart Stores, Inc., Annual Report（2014）, 7, http://stock.walmart.com/files/doc\_financials/2014/Annual/2014-annualreport.pdf.

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1. Amazon.com, Inc., Form 10-K, For the Fiscal Year Ended December 31, 2015（2016）, 17; Amazon.com, Inc., Form 10-K, For the Fiscal Year Ended December 31, 2014（2015）, 17.

1. 引自亚马逊2015年年报中，公司创始人兼首席执行官杰夫·贝佐斯给股东的信。

1. Amazon.com 2014 10-K, supra, at 3.

1. Andrew Couts, “Why Did Amazon Charge \$23,698,655.93 for a Textbook?” Digital Trends（April 23, 2011）, http://www.digitaltrends.com/computing /why-did-amazon-charge-

23698655-93-for-a-textbook/.

1. Greg Besinger, “Boomerang Commerce, a Real-Time Pricing Startup, Raises \$8.5 Million,” Wall Street Journal, July 16, 2014, http://blogs.wsj.comdigits/2014/07/16/boomerang-commerce-a-realtimepricing-startup-raises-8-5-million /.

1. CamelCamelCamel.com, Amazon Price Historyfor Conair CuisinartICE-21 1.5 Quart Frozen Yogurt-Ice Cream Maker（White） （2015）, http://camel camelcamel.com/Cuisinart-ICE-21-Frozen-YogurtIce-Sorbet/product/B003KYSLMW?context=browse.

1. CamelCamelCamel.com, Amazon Price History for Fossil Women’s ES3733 Stella Crystal-Accented Stainless Steel Watch with Link Bracelet（2015）, http://camelcamelcamel.com/Fossil-ES3733-Crystal-Accented-Stainless-Bracelet/product/B00NVAYBUQ? active=price\_amazon&context=top\_drops.

1. Jubin Mehta, “Boomerang Commerce, a Dynamic Price Optimization Company Raises \$8.5 Million,” Your Story（July 16,2014）, http://yourstory .com/2014/07/boomerang-commerce-raises-8-5million/.

1. Lizzie O’Leary, “Marketplace Weekend for Friday, December 19, 2014,” Marketplace Weekend（December 19, 2014）, http://www.marketplace.org/shows/marketplace-weekend/marketplaceweekendfriday-december-19-2014.

1. Ryan Mac, “Ex-Amazon Manager Gets Funding to Help Retailers Battle His Former Employer,” Forbes, July 16, 2014, http://www.forbes.com/sites /ryanmac/2014/07/16/boomerang-amazonbattle/.

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1. Besinger, “Boomerang Commerce.”

1. Julian D’Onfro, “13 Interesting Startups Founded by Former Amazon Employees,” Business Insider UK, June 20, 2015, http://uk.businessinsider .com/startups-founded-by-former-amazonemployees2015-6?r=US.

1. Joe Lindsey, “This Software Company Wants to Help Retailers Compete against Amazon,” Entrepreneur, October 29, 2014, http://www.entrepreneur .com /article/238454.

1. Amazon.co.uk. Prime Same-DayDelivery（2015）, http://www.amazon.co.uk/b/?ie=UTF8&node=5782509031&tag=googhydr-21&hv adid=66544544104&hvpos=1t1&hvexid=&hvnetw=g&hvrand=12880 355850154458096&hvpone=&hvptwo=&hvqmt=b&hvdev=c&ref=pd\_sl\_241

1. Amazon.co.uk, Amazon PrimeNow（2015）, http://www.amazon.co.Uk/b/ref =pn\_uk\_surl\_lp?node =6584642031.

1. Neal Ungerleider, “It Has 40 Million Subscribers. Now Amazon Prime Is Eyeing the Competition,” Fast Company（July 9, 2015）, http://www.fastcompany.com/3048366/it-has-40-million-subscribers-

nowamazon-prime-is-eyeing-the-competition.

1. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development,Exploring the Economics of Personal Data: A Survey of Methodologies for Measuring Monetary Value, OECD Digital Economy Papers, No. 220（Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, April 2, 2013）, 7, http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k486qtxldmqen.

1. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, DataDriven Innovation for Growth and Well-Being: Interim Synthesis Report（Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development,October 2014）, http://www.oecd.org/sti/inno/data-driveninnovationinterim-synthesis.pdf; Executive Office of the President, Big Data:Seizing Opportunities, Preserving Values（Washington, DC: Executive Office of the President, May 2014）, 2, https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/docs/big\_data\_privacy\_report\_

1. 详见：Robert McMillan, “IBM Turns Up Heat Under Competition in Artificial Intelligence,” Wall Street Journal, November 24, 2015, http://www.wsj.com/articles/ibm-turns-up-heat-under-competition-inartificialintelligence-1448362800.

1. Jo Best, Jo. “IBM Watson: The Inside Story of How the JeopardyWinning Supercomputer Was Born, and What It Wants to Do Next,”TechRepublic（2013）, http://www.techrepublic.com/article/ibmwatsonthe-inside-story-of-how-the-jeopardy-winning-supercomputer-wasborn-andwhat-it-wants-to-do-next /.

1. Steve Lohr, “IBM’s AI System Watson to Get Second Home,on West Coast,” New York Times, September 24, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/25/technology/ibms-ai-system-watson-toget-newwest-coast-home.html?smprod=nytcore-iphone&smid=nytcoreiphoneshare&\_r=0.

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1. Antonio Regalado, “Is Google Cornering the Market on Deep Learning?” MIT Technology Review, January 29, 2014, http://www.technologyreview.com /news/524026/is-google-cornering-themarketon-deep-learning/; Nicola Jones, “Computer Science: The Learning Machines,” Nature, January 8, 2014, http://wwwnature.com/news/computerscience-the-learning-machines-1 .14481.

1. European Data Protection Supervisor, Towards a New Digital Ethics: Data, Dignity and Technology, Opinion 4/2015（September 11,2015）, 9.

1. Robert D. Hof, “Deep Learning,” MIT Technology Review, April 23, 2013, http://www.technologyreview.com/featuredstory/513696/deeplearning/; Tereza Pultarova, “Jaguar Land Rover to Lead Driverless Car Research,” E&T（October 9, 2015）, http://eandt.theiet.org/news/2015/oct/jaguar-land - rover-driverless-cars.cfm; David Talbot, “CES 2015:Nvidia Demos a Car Computer Trained with ‘Deep Learning,’ ” MIT Technology Review, January 6, 2015）, http://www.technologyreview.com/news/533936/ces-2015-nvidia-demos-a-car-computer-trained-withdeep-learning/; David Levitin, 2015. “The Sum of Human Knowledge,”Wall Street Journal, September 18, 2015, http://www.wsj.com/articles/thesum-of-humanknowledge -1442610803. See also, Lohr, “IBM’s AI System Watson to Get Second Home.”

1. European Data Protection Supervisor, Towards a New Digital Ethics.

1. Suzanne Vranica and Robert McMillan, “IBM Nearing Acquisition of Weather Co.’s Digital and Data Assets,” Wall Street Journal, October 27,2015, http://www.wsj.com/articles/ibm-nearing-acquisition-of-weatherco-sdigital-and-data-assets-1445984616.

1. Suzanne Vranica and Robert McMillan, “IBM Nearing Acquisition of Weather Co.’s Digital and Data Assets,” Wall Street Journal, October 27,2015, http://www.wsj.com/articles/ibm-nearing-acquisition-of-weatherco-sdigital-and-data-assets-1445984616.

1. IBM, Mobile App from Octo Telematics Uses IBM and the Weather Company Data to Help Drivers Score Savings with Pay-As-YouDrive Insurance（October 26, 2015）, http://www-03.ibm.com/press/us/en/pressrelease /47949.wss.

1. IBM, Mobile App from Octo Telematics Uses IBM and the Weather Company Data to Help Drivers Score Savings with Pay-As-YouDrive Insurance（October 26, 2015）, http://www-03.ibm.com/press/us/en/pressrelease /47949.wss.

1. IBM, Mobile App from Octo Telematics Uses IBM and the Weather Company Data to Help Drivers Score Savings with Pay-As-YouDrive Insurance（October 26, 2015）, http://www-03.ibm.com/press/us/en/pressrelease /47949.wss.

1. Josh Constine, “Facebook launches Messenger platform with chatbots,” April 12, 2016, http://techcrunch.com/2016/04/12/agentsonmessenger/; Ben Popper, “Mark Zuckerberg Thinks AI Will Start Outperforming Humans in the Next Decade,” April 28, 2016, http://www.theverge.com/2016/4/28/11526436/mark-zuckerberg-facebookearningsartificial-intelligence-future.

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1. Madhumita Murgia, “Facebook Messenger’s New Bots Are a Powerful Way to Target Adverts,” The Telegraph, April 13, 2016,http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/2016/04/12/facebookmessengerlaunches-chat-bot-economy-to -take-on-apps/.

1. Michael Bowling et al., “Heads-Up Limit Hold’em Poker Is Solved,” Science, January 9, 2015, 145.

1. Tuomas Sandholm, “Solving Imperfect-Information Games,”Science, January 9, 2015, 122.

1. Amazon Machine Learning（last visited May 3, 2016）, https://aws.amazon .com/machine-learning/.

1. Danny Palmer, “Amazon follows Microsoft and Google with AI tools in Amazon Machine Learning Service,” Computing, April 10,2015, http://www.computing.co.uk/ctg/news/2403533/amazon-followsmicrosoftand-google-into-offering-customers-ai-tools-with-amazonmachine-learningservice.

1. Ingrid Lunden, “Amazon Launches AWS IoT — A Platform for Building, Managing and Analyzing the Internet Of Things,” Tech Crunch,October 8, 2015, http://techcrunch.com/2015/10/08/amazonannouncesaws-iot-a-platform-for-building-managing-and-analyzing-theinternet-ofthings/# .gfgxjj:0nTE.

1. Ingrid Lunden, “Amazon Launches AWS IoT — A Platform for

1. Reuters, “Amazon Launches Platform to Build Apps for IoT,”FirstPost, October 9, 2015, http://www.firstpost.com/business/amazonlaunches-platform-to-build-appsfor-iot-2461852.html.

1. City of New York. Mayor de Blasio Announces Minerva Tantoco as City’s First Ever Chief Technology Officer（New York: City of New York, September 4, 2014）, http://www1.nyc.gov/office-of-the-mayor/news/437- 14/mayor-de-blasio-minerva-tantoco-city-s-first-ever-chieftechnologyofficer.

1. “Pricing Algorithms: Is the Price You Pay Right?,” Bloomberg（May 12, 2015）, http://wwwbloomberg.eom/news/videos/b/02d3f0f0e653-4cal-8bdd-0f95a 5a81212.

1. Executive Office of the President, BigData and Differential Pricing（Washington, DC: Executive Office of the President, February 2015）, 13, https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/whitehouse\_files/docs/Big\_Da

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