算法的陷阱：超级平台、算法垄断与场景欺骗

（1）贪婪。“如果我现在买了它，我就占到了实惠。”

（2）恐惧。“如果我现在不买它，我就亏大了。”

（3）无私。“如果我现在买了它，我将可以帮助到他人。”

（4）嫉妒。“如果我现在不买它，我就比不过他了。”

（5）虚荣。“如果我现在买了它，这说明我还挺聪明。”

（6）羞愧。“如果我现在不买它，那可丢死人了。”

详见：Geoffrey James, “6 Emotions that Make Customers Buy: Customers Make Decisions at the Gut Level. Here’s How to Use the Customer’s Emotions to Your Advantage,” Inc.com（February 8, 2012）,http://www.inc.com/geoffrey -j ames/6 - emotions-that-makecustomers-buy.html。

1. Executive Office of the President, Big Data and Differential Pricing（Washington, DC: Executive Office of the President, February 2015）, 8, https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/whitehouse\_files/docs/Big\_Da

1. Competition and Markets Authority, The Commercial Use of Consumer Data: Report on the CMA’s Call for Information, CMA38（June 2015）, 2.86, https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment\_data/file 2.86.

1. Competition and Markets Authority, The Commercial Use ofConsumer Data: Report on the CMA’s Call for Information, CMA38（June2015）, 2.86,上的用户数据同样也不会用于iAd的广告营销。此外，iAd不会向第三方出售或是转让任何可识别出用户个人的信息。

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1. Apple, About Advertising & Privacy（September 14,2015）,https://support .apple.com/en-us/HT205223.。在2015年里，如果苹果手机用户想要限制iAd在iOS系统上的数据追踪，他需要完成以下操作：“设置”—“隐私”—“广告”—勾选“限制广告追踪”。同样，不论是在iTunes、Apple TV上，用户都需要完成相似的步骤才可以限制广告追踪。

1. Federal Trade Commission, Data Brokers: A Call for Transparency and Accountability（Washington, DC: Federal Trade Commission, May 2014）, 19-20, https://www.ftc.gov/system/files/ documents/reports/databrokers-call-transparency-accountability-reportfederal-trade-commissionmay-2014 /140527databrokerreport.pdf.

1. Lifehack Quotes, http://quotes.lifehack.org/edward-norton/webuythings-we-dont-need-with/.

1. Karen Freeman, “Amos Tversky, Expert on Decision Making,Is Dead at 59,” New York Times, June 6, 1996, http://www.nytimes.com/1996/06/06/us/amos -tversky-expert-on-decisionmaking-is-deadat-59.html.

1. Ned Welch, “A Marketer’s Guide to Behavioral Economics,”McKinsey Quarterly, February 2010, http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/marketing\_sales/a\_marketers\_guide\_to\_be

1. Robert B. Cialdini, Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion（New York: HarperBusiness, 2007）.

1. Dan Ariely, Predictably Irrational: The Hidden Forces that Shape Our Decisions（New York: HarperCollins, 2009）, 2.

1. Welch, “A Marketer’s Guide to Behavioral Economics”; SherylE.Kimes, Robert Phillips, and Lisabet Summa, “Pricing in Restaurants,”inThe Oxford Handbook of Pricing Management, A. Ozer and Robert Phillips,eds.（Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012）, 106（值得注意的是，这种现象也可被解释为“妥协效应”或“语境效应”）。

1. Welch, “A Marketer’s Guide to Behavioral Economics”; SherylE.Kimes, Robert Phillips, and Lisabet Summa, “Pricing in Restaurants,”inThe Oxford Handbook of Pricing Management, A. Ozer and Robert Phillips,eds.（Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012）, 106（值得注意的是，这种现象也可被解释为“妥协效应”或“语境效应”）。

1. Welch, “A Marketer’s Guide to Behavioral Economics”; SherylE.Kimes, Robert Phillips, and Lisabet Summa, “Pricing in Restaurants,”inThe Oxford Handbook of Pricing Management, A. Ozer and Robert Phillips,eds.（Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012）, 106（值得注意的是，这种现象也可被解释为“妥协效应”或“语境效应”）。

1. Welch, “A Marketer’s Guide to Behavioral Economics”; SherylE.Kimes, Robert Phillips, and Lisabet Summa, “Pricing in Restaurants,”inThe Oxford Handbook of Pricing Management, A. Ozer and Robert Phillips,eds.（Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012）, 106（值得注意的是，这种现象也可被解释为“妥协效应”或“语境效应”）。

1. Kyle James, “Beware of These Pricing Tricks Retailers Use to Fool Your Brain,” Two Cents（May 22, 2015）, http://twocents. lifehacker.com/beware-of-these-pricing-tricks-retailers-use-to-foolyo-1706225322.

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1. Anshu Jalora, “Applying Consumer Psychology to Software Pricing,” in Innovation in Pricing: Contemporary Theories and Best Practices, Andreas Hinterhuber and Stephan Liozu, eds.（London:Routledge, 2013）, 396-399.

1. Anshu Jalora, “Applying Consumer Psychology to Software Pricing,” in Innovation in Pricing: Contemporary Theories and Best Practices, Andreas Hinterhuber and Stephan Liozu, eds.（London:Routledge, 2013），397。

1. Executive Office of the President, BigData and Differential Pricing, 11.

1. Aniko Hannak, Gary Soeller, David Lazer, Alan Mislove, and Christo Wilson, “Measuring Price Discrimination and Steering on E-Commerce Web Sites,” Proceedings of the 2014 Conference on Internet Measurement Conference, New York, 305-318, http://www.ccs.neu.edu/home/cbw/pdf /imc151-hannak.pdf.

1. Competition and Markets Authority, The Commercial Use of Consumer Data, 93-94.

1. Hannak et al., “Measuring Price Discrimination and Steering on E-Commerce Web Sites.”

1. Hannak et al., “Measuring Price Discrimination and Steering on E-Commerce Web Sites.”，sections 4.2-4.5。

1. Hannak et al., “Measuring Price Discrimination and Steering on E-Commerce Web Sites.”，section 5.2。

1. Hannak et al., “Measuring Price Discrimination and Steering on E-

Commerce Web Sites.”，section 5.2。

1. Hannak et al., “Measuring Price Discrimination and Steering on E-Commerce Web Sites.”，section 5.2。

1. Hannak et al., “Measuring Price Discrimination and Steering on E-Commerce Web Sites.”，section 5.2。

1. Xavier Gabaix and David Laibson, “Shrouded Attributes,Consumer Myopia, and Information Suppression in Competitive Markets,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 121（2006）: 505-508; Oren Bar-Gill and Elizabeth Warren, “Making Credit Safer,” University of Pennsylvania Law Review 157, no. 1（2008）: 27-28; Simon Johnson and James Kwak, 13 Bankers: The Wall Street Takeover and the Next Financial Meltdown（New York: Pantheon, 2010）, 81, 108.

1. Adi Ayal, “Harmful Freedom of Choice: Lessons from theCellphone Market,” Law and Contemporary Problems 74（2011）:91, 118;文中提到，“合同文本的复杂性有助于提高顾客的转换成本，也使商家可以对不同消费者进行定价分化，粉饰自己的抬价行为”。

1. Eugenio J. Miravete, “The Doubtful Profitability of Foggy Pricing 2- 3,” NET Institute Working Paper No. 04-07（2004）, http:/ssrn.com/abstract=618465.

1. Ayal, “Harmful Freedom of Choice,” 124.

1. Ellen Peters et al., “More Is Not Always Better: Intuitions about Public Policy Can Lead to Unintended Health Consequences,” Social Issues & Policy Review 7, no. 1（1996）: 114, 122.

1. Chris M. Wilson and Catherine Waddams Price, “Do Consumers

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Switch to the Best Supplier?” Oxford Economic Papers 62（2011）: 98131; see also Adi Ayal, “Harmful Freedom of Choice,” 121. 有关美国医疗保健 市场中的反竞争市场行为与启示，详见：William M. Sage and Peter J. Hammer, “Competing on Quality of Care: The Need to Develop a Competition Policy for Health Care Markets,” University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform 32（1999）: 1073, 1082。

1. Competition and Markets Authority, Energy Market Investigation:Summary of Provisional Findings Report（July 7, 2015）, para.123, https://www.gov.uk /government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment\_data/file/442500/EMI\_PFs\_

1. Competition and Markets Authority, Energy MarketInvestigation:Summary of Provisional Findings Report（July 7, 2015）。英国竞争与市场管理局发现，消费者对产品定价缺乏审视精神的原因还在于“（他们）可能没有有效利用互联网进行相关产品价格搜索（或者没有条件上网）”。文中还提到，“低收入群体与教育水平较低的消费者”更加不善于使用比价网站。

1. Competition and Markets Authority, Energy Market Investigation:Summary of Provisional Findings Report（July 7, 2015）， para. 126。

1. Stefania Sitzia, Jiwei Zheng, and Daniel John Zizzo,“Complexity and Smart Nudges with Inattentive Consumers,” CCP Working Paper 12-13, available online: http://competitionpolicy.ac.uk/documents/8158338/8251737/CCP+Working+ 13.pdf/f9d4eff9daf7-4244-acd7 -240b8972bfd7.

1. Anthony Giorgianni, “Avoid These Mattress Store Tricks:Don’t Be Misled into Paying More or Buying Stuff You Don’t Want,”Consumer

Reports, May 8, 2 http://www.consumerreports.org/cro/news/2014/05/avoid-mattress-storetricks/index.htm.

1. U.K. Office of Fair Trading, The Impact of Price Frames on Consumer Decision Making, OFT1226（May 2010）, 1.5, http://webarchive.national archives.gov.uk/20140402142426/, http://www.oft.gov.uk/shared\_oft/economic \_research/OFT1226.pdf.

1. Interstate Circuit v. United States, 306 U.S. 208（1939）.

1. E. Vis and J. Toth, “The Abolition of the No-Discrimination Rule,”（Amsterdam: ITM Research, March 2000）, 7-10, http://www.creditslips.org/files /netherlands-no-discrimination-rulestudy.pdf.

014,

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engagement-in- a-digital-world; quoting In re Text Messaging Antitrust Litig., 782 F.3d 867, 874（7th Cir.）cert. denied sub nom and Aircraft Check Servs. Co. v. Verizon Wireless, 136 S. Ct. 524（2015）.

1. Paragraph 79, House of Lords, Select Committee on European Union, “Online Platforms and the Digital Single Market,” April 20, 2016,10th Report of Session 2015-16, http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201516 /ldselect/ldeucom/129/129.pdf.

1. 本书第13章将介绍比价网站在限制商家进行价格歧视时发挥的作用。

1. Executive Office of the President, Big Data and Differential Pricing.

1. 在欧盟，有关隐私与电子通信的相关法规“约束了电信服务提供商对于用户隐私信息的收集行为以及对用户Cookies（即存储在用户本地终端设备上的数据）的使用”。比如，“被电信服务提供商获取到的用户定位数据必须在完成通信服务后被匿名化处理或者删除”，除非“相关信息还被用于提供增值服务”，又或者“用户已授权服务商可以保留相关信息。”此外，“（服务商）在使用并追踪Cookies或者相似技术上的数据时需要在搜索设置上提示用户是否同意跟踪其Cookies记录并且征得用户同意”。详见：DLAPiper, Data Protection Laws of the World,http://dlapiperdataprotection.com/#handbook /online-privacy-section/c2\_GB。

1. Chisholm, Why “Sleepers” Can’t Always Be Left to “Sleep.”

1. “David Currie speaks about the CMA experience of behavioural economics,” April 20, 2015. Available on the CMA website: https://www.gov.uk /government/speeches/david- currie-speaks-about-thecmaexperience - of -behavioural-economics.

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