算法的陷阱：超级平台、算法垄断与场景欺骗

1. Douglass C. North, Understanding the Process of EconomicChange（Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005）, 67.

1. Stucke and Grunes, Big Data and Competition Policy.

1. Yannis Bakos, Florencia Marotta-Wurgler, and David R. Trossen,“Does Anyone Read the Fine Print? Consumer Attention to StandardForm Contracts,” Journal of Legal Studies 43, no. 1（January 2014）;Florencia Marotta-Wurgler, “Consumer Behavior and Disclosure in Online Contracts,” presentation at the Conference on Behavioral Industrial Organization and Consumer Protection, University College London, October 18, 2014.

1. Federal Trade Commission, Complying with COPPA: Frequently Asked Questions（March 20, 2015）, https://www.ftc.gov/tipsadvice/business-center/guidance/complying-coppafrequently-askedquestions#General%20Questions.

1. T-201/04, Microsoft Corp v. Commission, Court of First Instance（September 17, 2007）.

Protection Reform Will Boost Digital Single Market（Brussels: European Commission, December 15, 2015）, http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release\_IP-15-6321\_en.htm. 另见：Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on the Protection of Natural Persons with Regard to the Processing of Personal Data and on the Free Movement of Such Data, and Repealing Directive 95/46/EC（General Data Protection Regulation）,Brussels（April 27, 2016）, http://data.consilium. europa.eu/doc/document/PE-17-2016- INIT/en/pdf。

1. Article 83, EU Data Protection Regulation（“行政罚款的最高金额可达2,000万欧元”）。

1. Samuel Gibbs, “EU Agrees Draft Text of Pan-European Data Privacy Rules,” The Guardian, December 16, 2015, http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2015/dec/16/eu-agrees-draft-textpaneuropean-data-privacy-rules.

1. European Commission, Agreement on Commission’s EU Data Protection Reform Will Boost Digital Single Market.

1. Pedro Domingos, “Get Ready for Your Digital Model: Algorithms Will Build Data-Driven Alter Egos for Us That Can Do Job Interviews,Shop for Cars and Go on Dates,” Wall Street Journal, November 12,2015, http://www .wsj.com/articles/get-ready-for-your-digital-model1447351480? alg=y.

1. 有关欧盟《一般数据保护法案》的适用性问题，详见：FrederikZuiderveen Borgesius, “Online Price Discrimination and Data ProtectionLaw,” Amsterdam Law School Research Paper No. 2015-32（August 28,2015）, http://ssrn.com/abstract=2652665。

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1. Simon Birch, “Collective Buying: The Emergence of a New Co-Operative Movement,” The Guardian, June 15, 2002, http://www. theguardian.com/social-enterprise-network/2012/jun/15/collectivebuying-bigswitch -cooperative-movement.

1. Martin Lewis, “Group Buying Is NOT Collective Purchasing,”MoneySaving Expert.com（February 10, 201 1）, http://blog.moneysavingexpert.com/2011/02/10/group-buying-is-notcollectivepurchasing/.

1. Patrick Collinson, “Group-Buying — Does It Deliver?” The Guardian, January 29, 2011, http://www.theguardian.com/money/2011/jan/29/group -buying- do es-itdeliver.

1. for example, Autoebid, Reverse Auctions（2016）, https://www.autoebid .com/reverse-auctions.asp, or Legal BenchMarket International.

1. President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology,Big Data and Privacy: A Technological Perspective（Washington,DC: Executive Office of the President, May 2014）, x, https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/microsites/ostp/PCAST/pcast\_ \_may\_2014.pdf; Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, Exploring Data-Driven Innovation as a New Source of Growth: Mapping the Policy Issues Raised by “Big Data”（Paris: Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, June 18, 2003）, 12, http://www.oecd.org/officialdocuments/publicdisplaydoc umentpdf/? cote=DSTI/ICCP（2012）9/FINAL&docLanguage =En.

1. Stanford Graduate School of Business Staff, “Sharing Information to

Boost the Bottom Line,” Insights by Stanford Business（March 1,1999）, http://www .gsb.stanford.edu/insights/sharing-information-boostbottom-line.

最后的话

1. Ludwig von Mises, Bureaucracy, Bettina Bien Greaves, ed. （Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 2007 [1944]）, 17.

1. Federal Trade Commission and U.S. Department of Justice,Antitrust Guidelines for Collaborations among Competitors（April 2000）, https://www.ftc.gov/sites/default/files/documents/public\_events/jointventure-hearings-antitrust-guidelines-collaboration-amongcompetitors /ftcdojguidelines-2.pdf.

1. Paragraph 204 of the House of Lords, Select Committee on European Union, “Online Platforms and the Digital Single Market”（20 April 2016） 10th Report of Session 2015-16, http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201516/ldselect/ldeucom/129/129

1. Facebook, Form 10-K for the Fiscal Year Ended December 31,2014（2015）, 33.

1. Statistics Portal, Facebook’s Average Revenue per User from 2010 to 2014, by Region（in U.S. Dollars）, http://www.statista.com/statistics/251328/facebooks-average-revenue-peruser-by-region/.

1. Digital Strategy Consulting, “How Much Are You Worth? Average Revenue per User at Google, Facebook and Twitter”（June 18, 2014）,http://www

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=.digitalstrategyconsulting.com/intelligence/2014/06/ad\_revenue\_per\_user\_go ok\_twitter.php.

1. Vindu Goel, “Flipping the Switches on Facebook’s Privacy Controls,” New York Times, January 29, 2014, http://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/30/technology/personaltech/on-facebookdeciding-whoknows-youre-a-dog.html?\_r=1.

1. Deepa Seetharaman, “Facebook Prods Users to Share a Bit More,” Wall Street Journal, November 2, 2015, http://www.wsj.com/articles/facebook-prods -users-to-share-a-bit-more-1446520723.

1. Deepa Seetharaman, “Facebook Prods Users to Share a Bit More,” Wall Street Journal, November 2, 2015, http://www.wsj.com/articles/facebook-prods -users-to-share-a-bit-more-1446520723.

1. Jacob Weisberg, “We Are Hopelessly Hooked,” New York Review of Books, February 25, 2016, 9.

1. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development,Data-Driven Innovation for Growth and Well-Being: Interim Synthesis Report（Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development,October 2014）, 29, http://www.oecd.org/sti/inno/data-driveninnovationinterim-synthesis.pdf; 引自：C. Shapiro and H. R. Varian, Information Rules:A Strategic Guide to the Network Economy（Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business Press, 1999）。

1. Case T-201/04, Microsoft Corp. v. Commission, 2007 E.C.R. II3601（Court of First Instance）, para. 1061.

1. “Business in America: Too Much of a Good Thing: Profits Are Too High. America Needs a Giant Dose of Competition,” The Economist, March 26, 2016, http://www.economist.com/node/21695385/print.

1. 有关算法所发挥的网络效应，详见：Maurice E. Stucke and AllenP. Grunes, Big Data and Competition Policy（Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress, 2016）。

1. Brad Brown, Michael Chui, and James Manyika, “Are You Ready for the Era of ‘Big Data’?” McKinsey Quarterly（October 2011）, 2, http://www.t-systems .com/solutions/download-mckinseyquarterly-/1148544\_l/blobBinary/Study -McKinsey-Big-data.pdf.

1. Maurice E. Stucke and Ariel Ezrachi, “When Competition Fails to Optimize Quality: A Look at Search Engines,” Yale Journal of Law &Technology 18（2016）: 70.

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1. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, DataDriven Innovation for Growth and Well-Being, 29; see also Federal Trade Commission, Google Inc., File No. 111-0163（August 8, 2012）（该 报告发表于《华尔街日报》）, 76（文中谈到了这种“恶性循环”以及它 将“如何给潜在的市场进入者造成巨大的障碍”）。

1. Executive Office of the President, Big Data and Differential Pricing（Washington, DC: Executive Office of the President, February 2015）,

https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/docs/Big\_Data\_Report\_Nonem

1. 这项研究表明，“基于用户人口统计学的个性化定价将可以为Netfiix带来0.8%的利润增长。如果使用5,000个网络浏览器变量（如用户日常的上网时间或者用户最近是否访问过维基百科或者IMDB），这将带来12.2%的利润增长”。出处同上，citing Benjamin Shiller, “First-Degree Price Discrimination Using BigData”（2014）,http://benjaminshiller.com/images/First\_Degree\_PD\_Using\_Big\_Data\_Apr\_8, \_2014.pdf。

1. 想对“短时预测雷达”了解更多，详见：Stucke and Grunes,BigData and Competition Policy。

1. Yoko Kubota, “Toyota Aims to Make Self-Driving Cars by 2020,” Wall Street Journal, October 6, 2015, http://www.wsj.com/articles/toyotaaims-to-make -self-driving-cars-by-2020-1444136396; Yoko Kubota, “Behind Toyota’s Late Shift into Self-Driving Cars,” Wall Street Journal, January 12, 2016, http://www.wsj.com/articles/behindtoyotas-late-shift-intoself-driving-cars-1452649436（“在争夺全球领先地位的战斗中，传统汽 车制造商担心，软件制造商将窃取汽车的灵魂和盈利能力，让这些企业 沦为中国代工厂式的生产企业”）。

1. Joseph Menn, “Data Collection Arms Race Feeds Privacy Fears,”Reuters（February 19, 2012）, http://www.reuters.com/article/usdatacollection-idUSTRE81I0AP20120219.

1. Evgeny Morozov, “Socialize the Data Centres!” New Left Review, January- February 2015, http://newleftrevieworg/II/91/evgenymorozovsocialize-the -data-centres.

1. Oxfam, “David Cameron: End the Era of Tax Havens So That We Can End Poverty”（2016）, https://act.oxfam.org/great-britain/taxhavens-2016-644e5810 -f58e-40f5-8162-d09b2392efa6?sid=2016-01- 18\_ogbsite\_homepage.

1. Graeme Warden, “Oxfam: 85 Richest People as Wealthy as Poorest Half of the World,” The Guardian, January 20, 2016, http://www. theguardian.com /business/2014/jan/20/oxfam-85-richest-people-half-oftheworld.

1. “Business in America,” The Economist; Jonathan B. Baker andSteven C. Salop, “Antitrust, Competition Policy, and Inequality,”GeorgetownLaw Journal 104（2015）: 1—28,http://scholarship.law.georgetown.edu/facpub/1462 /; Greg Ip, “BehindRising Inequality:More Unequal Companies,” Wall Street Journal, November4, 2015,http://www.wsj.com/articles/behind-rising-inequality-more-unequalcompanies-1446665769（“越来越多的证据表明，工资不平等的主要驱动因素是高利润公司与低利润公司之间的创收水平拉大，而不是同一家企业中高工资与低工资员工的收入水平拉大。这表明，为提高个人福祉，提高最低工资标准与改善教育环境的方式并不能完全填补这种收入差距。通过监管手段促进竞争也很重要”）。

1. Council of Economic Advisers, “Benefits of Competition and

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Indicators of Market Power,” Issue Brief（May 2016）, https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites
/default/files/page/files/20160502\_competition\_issue\_brief\_updated\_cea .pdf.

1. Council of Economic Advisers, “Benefits of Competition and Indicators of Market Power,” Issue Brief（May 2016）, https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites

.pdf，14；“竞争政策和对市场力量滥用的积极对策，可能是政府确保市场为社会提供最佳产品服务选项、维护创新精神、实现完全竞争价格和公平的就业与商业环境的重要途径”。

1. Council of Economic Advisers, “Benefits of Competition and Indicators of Market Power,” Issue Brief（May 2016）, https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites

/default/files/page/files/20160502\_competition\_issue\_brief\_updated\_cea.pdf，12-13。“一个具体问题是，大数据是否是一种关键资源，如果不掌握这些数据，市场新进入者可能很难进行营销或吸引客户。”

1. UN Secretary General’s Independent Expert Advisory Group on a Data Revolution for Sustainable Development, A World That Counts: Mobilising the Data Revolution for Sustainable Development（United Nations, November 2014）, 7, http://en.unesco.org/unsab/system/files/Data%20Revolution%20Report%20A-World-That-Counts\_0.pdf.

1. Joseph E. Stiglitz, “Information and the Change in the Paradigm in Economics,” American Economic Review 92, no. 3（June 2002）:460-501.

1. Nathan Newman, “The Costs of Lost Privacy: Consumer Harm and

Rising Economic Inequality in the Age of Google,” William Mitchell Law Review 40, no. 2（2014）, http://ssrn.com/abstract=2310146.

1. Jennifer Valentino-Devries, Jeremy Singer-Vine, and AshkanSoltani, “Websites Vary Prices, Deals Based on Users’ Information,”WallStreet Journal, December 24, 2012,http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1000142412788732377720457818939181388据对美国各地邮政编码对应的居民收入的研究表明，居民加权平均收入大致为59,900美元的区域往往能收到更高的折扣）。

1. Tom Fairless and Alistair Barr, “EU Lays Groundwork for Antitrust Charges against Google,” Wall Street Journal, April 11, 2015,http://www.wsj.com /articles/eu-lays-groundwork-for-antitrustchargesagainst-google-1427928793.

1. Alistair Barr, “Alphabet Reports Rising Profits at Core Google Businesses,” Wall Street Journal, February 1, 2016, http://www.wsj.com/articles/alphabet -reports-rising-profits-at-coregooglebusinesses-1454361634.

1. Case No. COMP/M.7217, Facebook/Whatsapp（October 3,2014）, para. 164.

1. 详见：Stucke and Grunes, Big Data and Competition Policy; Maurice E. Stucke, “Better Competition Advocacy,” St. John’s Law Review 82, no. 3（2008）: 951。

1. Adam Thierer, “Can There Be a Market for Unpaid Search Results and Could Google Be Classified as a Public Utility?” Antitrust &Competition Policy Blog（May 21, 2012）, http://lawprofessors.typepad.com/antitrustprof\_blog/2012/05/can-there-be-amarket-for-unpaid-searchresults-and-could-google-be -classified-as-a-publicutility-c-1.html.

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