DIGITAL LABOR THE INTERNET AS PLAYGROUND AND FACTORY

democracy: foreclosure of 176; participatory 212, 215; spectacles of 7; virtual worlds and 192
Denning, Michael 26
deprivation 155
Derrida, Jacques 60
De Soto, Hernando59
determinism, technological 22
Diaspora 7, 222
digital alienation 154-61
digital economy 35–9; masculine labor in 48; morality and 52; updating in 105; user participationin 52
The Digital Economy (Tapscott) 37
digitality 171-2
digital labor 15, 79
digital media: backlash against 33; as facilitators 16; glamorization of 33; infrastructure of 157; political economy of 225; social movements and 3
digitization 6, 168, 177
disciplinary society 137
Discipline and Punish (Foucault) 82
discourse 172; demotion of 166, 176; racial 194–6, 198; scientific 87
Discourse onColonialism (Césaire) 178
distributed labor20
distributed workplaces 20–2
docility 83
do-it-yourself economy 30
domesticity, idealized 135
domination, informatics of 34
donation, of labor 21
Dreamworld and Catastrophe (Buck-Morss) 132
Dyson, Esther 155
economy: alternative 22; attention13, 214; database 62; do-it-yourself 30; free 46; of Internet 46, 50; new 35; participatory 212; political 58–61, 225; server198, 200; see also digital economy; gift economy
Eisenstein, Sergei 132
e-lance operations 20
end-user license agreement 156, 194
Enlightenment 83, 86-7
entertainment industry 23
entertainment unions22–3
environmentalism 60
environmental sustainability 209–10
Enzensberger, Hans Magnus173-4
ephemeral commodities 45-50
epistemic changes 178
essentialism228
Everquest 187
exegesis 176
exploitation: free labor and 107, 151–4; of gullibility 158; internships as 25; of labor1; Marxist understanding of 154; on Mechanical Turk 91; monitoring and 161-2; on networks152; ownership and 155–6; pleasure and 153; self 21, 25, 107
Facebook 2; participation and212-13; politics on 213; revenue of 17; separation by 157
factory, social 25, 33–4, 52,74
factory labor 30, 135
false consciousness 27
fan(s)5, 98; commodities and 100; compensation of 109-10; customization by 102; as ideal consumers 104; identities of 104–5; ideology of 104; labor of 99; object relationship with 100, 103; organization of 109; volunteerism 108-9
fan culture 101
Fan Cultures (Hills) 103
fandom: as free labor 99; insanity and98; pseudonymity and 108; social dimension of 102
feminism 135,217
feminization, of work 24, 30
film 3, 132–5
financialization 6, 229
flash mobs 138–9
Flusser, Vilém 87–8, 168–71
Fordism28, 70
Foucault, Michel58, 82–3, 88, 120, 165,176–7
Foxconn 28–9, 220
Fox networks22
“Fragment on Machines" (Marx) 44, 59
free culture 72
free economy 46
free labor 4; availability of 16; commons and 53; ephemeral commodities and 45– 50; exploitation and 107, 151-4; fandom as 99; in online communities 106; solidarity and 209; see also internships
Freelancers Union15
freelance writers 13-14
free markets 22

Index

253

254 Index

Freud, Sigmund 142
Fuchs, Christian 7
future, algorithmic 233–5

Galloway, Alexander 2 game 6, 194, 201; see also massively multiplayer online game gamification 73-4 Gastarbeiter (guest worker) 5, 92 gender 24, 127–8 general intellect 26, 44, 225–7 generative technology 232 Gibson, William70 gift 72 gift economy36–8; in MUDs 191; Netscape and 49 Gilroy, Paul 34–5 globality234 gold farmers 188; economic need of 195; killing of 195, 199; machinima against
195; race and 189–90, 192–3, 197; as virtual migrants 190, 192 Google: AdSense 110; participation and
212–13; revenue of 17 Gou, Terry 29 A Grammar of the Multitude (Virno) 60 Great Recession15, 17, 24 Greece 234 Grundrisse (Marx)44 guest worker 5, 92

hacker 73; class of 71; ethics of 21
Haraway, Donna 34
Hardt, Michael 90, 136–8, 152
Harman, Graham 122
Harold, Christine 72
“Heat-Death” (Parisi and Terranova)114
Hebdige, Dick 99–100
Hesmondhalgh, David 154–5
Hills, Matt102-5
historicity, waning of 181
HITsee human intelligence task
hive mind 42–3
Hollywood 18, 133
Hon Hai Precision Industry Co.28
Horvarth, John 49
Howe, Jeff 88–9
HTML 149
Huffington, Ariana 13
Huffington Post4, 13-14
human authentication tool 79
human exception 65
human intelligence task (HIT) 79
humanism43

The Human Use of Human Beings (Wiener) 168

IBM29
identity: choice of 137; collective 138; fan 104–5; national 132; non– 65; symbolic 137
ideology 104, 174,211
immaterial labor 39–42, 89, 152
immigration 92
imperialism, cultural 38
India 26
individual 182
informatics 34, 182
insanity 98
integrative production 29
intellect: endeavor of 75; general 26, 44, 225-7; mass45
intellectual history 181
intellectual property 27
International Gaming Exchange 188, 195
Internet: commercialization of 46; communist 220–2; economy of 46, 50; monitoring on 149–50; new humanism with 43; organization of 42–3; participatory 211; political potential of 39; self-expression on 18; social life on 1; studies of 211; sustainability of 47, 106; users of 39–40; see also web
Internet as Playground and Factory 1
internships 4, 17, 23–5
Ipeirotis, Panos 80

Jenkins, Henry 8, 98, 102–3, 193
job gratification 21
Keen, Andrew 98
Kelly, Kevin 42–3
Kempelen, Wolfgang von 81–4
knowledge class 39–42
knowledge workers 37,39–40

labor: capital truce with 26, 69; cognitive 91–2, 207; creative expression and 2; cultural 38–9; digital 15, 79; distributed 20; donation of 21; exploitation of 1; factory 30, 135; of fans 99; immaterial 39–42, 89, 152; living 29; Marxist analysis of 34; masculine understanding of 48; play- 26; in prison 16; productivity of 231; token-wage 16; unwaged 2, 26; wage 217; see also free labor
labor arbitrage 91–2

labor movement 16
labor-power, collapse of 231
labor theory of value 26
LambdaMOO 190
language 143, 175–6
Lazzarato, Maurizio2, 40–1
Lehman, Chris 27
Leibniz, Gottfried 85
letters to the editor 19
Levy, Pierre 42–3
Lewis, Andrew18
liberalism 197-8,228
Lineage II 187–8
literary agents 15
living labor 29
logistics 230-1
Lovink, Geert 21
Lynch, Liam 130

machines: calculating 86-7; chess-playing 81; Marxon44, 59; responsive2
machinima 193–6; as breakthrough medium 200; as game extension 194; racial discourse in 194–6, 198
McLuhan, Marshall 173
McRobbie,Angela27, 30
Mago, Rajesh91-2
man, as capital 178
management, of knowledge workers37
manufacturers, high tech28
Margulis, Lynn 118
market: behavior 18; Foucault on 120; free22
marketing: feedback-based 158; viral 73; web 2.0 as 211
Marx, Karl 2, 16, 29, 59, 215–18; on alienation 158; on exploitation 154; on labor analysis 34; on labor theory of value 26; on machines 44, 59
Marxist feminism 217
massively multiplayer online game (MMO): avatars in 191; cheating in 188; democratic potential of 192; as global medium 189; racein 188, 191; social norms on198; see also gold farmers
massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) 187
mass media132, 134
Massumi, Brian 114
mathematics 119
matter 112-14,155
Mayr, Otto 85
Mazzarella,William 89
measure 116-24
Mechanical Turk 19–20, 79–81; demographics of 80–1; exploitation on91
media 115–16; address 132; critiques of 174–5; history of 175; mass132, 134; old 22–3; response to 174; social211, 218; studies of 115; technologies116–21; see also digital media
Media Manifestos (Debray)175
mediator, vanishing 172
mediology175
medium, as message 173
Melville, Herman 131
microtasks 20
milieu 120-1
mind: hive 42–3; as spiritual automaton 85
minstrel shows 200
MMO see massively multiplayer online game
MMORPG see massively multiplayeronline role-playing game
mobile devices 225
mobile workers 29–30
monitoring 149–50, 161–2
MOO see MUD, object oriented
morality 52
moral panic 108
movement: labor 16; Occupy 54, 73 232–3; open source 48; peer-to-peer 66; social 3; see also subcultural movements
MUD see multi-user dungeon
MUD, object oriented (MOO) 190
multitude 90
multi-user dungeon (MUD) 190–1
MySpace 127
myth making 18
Nadeem, Shehzad 92
Nakamura, Lisa 6
name recognition19
nanotechnology 112-14,117
national identity132
nation-state 63
Negri, Antonio 90, 136–8
neoliberalism90–3, 198, 221
netarchical capital 208
Netscape 49
netslaves33,50
network: actor- 60; exploitation on 152; seriality of 233; social 6–7, 160; time 92
Network Culture (Terranova) 105
networking 160
network time 92

Index

255

256 Index

New Economy 35
newspapers 19,87
New York Times 192, 221
Ni Hao (Nyhm) 195–9
nonidentity 65
nonplayer character 196
“Nyhm”195–9
object 121–4; fan relationship with 100,
103; qualities of 123
Occupy movement 54, 73,232–3
October Revolution 132
offshoring 16, 25
old media 22–3
Ong, Aihwa 90–1
online communities 106, 190
ontology, object-oriented 122
open source movement 48
operaismo25
The Order of Things (Foucault) 165, 177
Orientalism 83
Out of Control (Kelly) 42
outsourcing16, 25
ownership: exploitation and 155–6; by
workers7
ownership class 155
P2P see peer-to-peer
Palm, Michael 25
Panopticon 88
Parisi, Luciana 112-14, 116-20
participation 212; in digital economy 52;
fetishizing of 138; personalized 140;
pleasure of 153; web platforms and
212-14
participatory democracy 212, 215
participatory economy 212
participatory web 212–15
peer engagement 207
peer production 207–10
peer-to-peer (P2P) 207–10
peer-to-peer common value creation 22
peer-to-peer currency234
peer-to-peer movement 66
peer-to-peer sharing 8
people shows 51
perception 115
Perlin, Ross24
Pettman, Dominic 129–30
philology 176
philosophy: process 123; writing and 169
photographic apparatus 170
photography168–70

phyle209 piracy 73 Pirate Party 73 play: labor 26; work distinction from 2,
20,159 player-worker 193, 199 pleasure 107, 153 Poe, Edgar Alan 86–7 political economy 58–61, 225 political organization 232, 235 political subject 136 politics 58–9; blogs and 128; of convenience139; on Facebook 213; Internet potential for 107; posthuman
65; progressive 73; of representation 2. of universal 228–9, 233; of utterance
183; of vectoral class 70 posthuman politics 65 postmodernism 34, 47, 181 potentia 226 potentiality 117-18 power 229, 231 prehension 116–21 press unions 15 prison labor 16 privacy 2, 150–1, 161 privatization 157,221 process philosophies 123 production: biosphere-friendly 209; capi circulation and 216; of content 19,
218–19; integrative 29; peer 207–10 productivity 16, 231 profit: corporate 16; generation of 216; rate 218 progressive politics 73 prosumer 18, 217–19 pseudonómity 108 public access culture 22 Qualls, Ashley 127 race: Cold War and 198; in games 201; gold farming and 189–90, 192–3, 197 in MMOs 188, 191 racial discourse 194–6, 198 radio 132 Rancière, Jacques 58–9,66 rave scene 101 Real, recession of 179 reality television 22–3, 51 re-captcha 79–80 recombinant commodity 46 rent extraction, boom in 4, 27

representation, politics of 234
"Requiem for the Media"
(Baudrillard) 174
resistance, creative 7
responsive machines 2
Rheingold, Howard 47-8
rights 62, 64; copy- 72, 110; immigration
without92
risk 230
Ross, Andrew 4, 71, 106–7
Rossiter, Ned 7
SACOM see Students and Scholars Against
Corporate Misbehavior
Scholz, Trebor 21, 211
self:exploitationof21, 25, 107; expression
of, on Internet18; shattering of 62
sentient city 235
separation 156-7
seriality 232-3
server: economy 198, 200; industry, carbon
footprint of 60; web 48
Shirky, Clay 17
Shop Class as Soulcraft (Crawford) 24
Shumiatskii, Boris 133
signs165,175
simulation 181
skilled trades 24
Smith, Adam 87
Smythe, Dallas 2, 217
social capital 18-19
social factory25, 33-4,52,74
socializing, infrastructure for 156
social justice 157
social media211, 218
social movements3
socialnetwork 6-7, 160
The Social Network 17
society: class 216; communist 220–2;
control 120; disciplinary 137; of
spectacle 139
software: architecture of 118–19; for
logistics230–1; studies of 231
solidarity140,209
Sorkin, Aaron 17
Sorochan, Cayley 138
Soviet Union 132-3
spectacles of democracy 7
spectacular consumption 142
Spiegel221
Spook Country (Gibson) 70
Star Trek 195
Star Wars 105

Steinkuehler, Constance 188
strategic essentialism 228 Students and Scholars Against Corporate Misbehavior (SACOM) 220
style 99–101 subcultural movements 39; oppositional 108; style in 99–101 Subculture (Hebdige) 99–100
subject 136,182 suicide 28–9
supply chain 230
surplus value 216
surveillance 158
sustainability: environmental 209–10; of Internet 47, 106 symbolic identity 137
Taiwan 28
Tapscott, Don 37
Tasini, Jonathan 13-14
taskers 20–1
taste culture 101
Taylorism 20, 27, 29
technological determinism 22
technological utopianism 39
technology: generative 232; media 116-21; nano-112-14, 117; political organization and235
television 132; industry 46; reality 22–3, 51; shows50–1
temping 25
terms of service 156
Terranova, Tiziana 2, 4, 99, 105–6, 114,120
Textual Poachers (Jenkins)98
Thornton, Sarah 101-2
time 92
Toffler, Alvin 18, 20, 155, 217
token-wage labor 16
Towards a Philosophy of Photography (Flusser) 168
trades24
translation 227–30, 232
Tronti, Mario 25
Twitter 3
unconscious 180
unemployment 16,45
unions 15, 22–3
United States 132-3
universalism 228
unwaged labor 2, 26
USA Today 149

Index

257

258Index

utopianism, technological 39
utterance, politics of 183
value: extraction of 50; generation 152–3;
labor theory of 26; surplus 216
vanishing mediator 172
vectoral class69–71
viral marketing73
Virno, Paulo 60
virtuality 181
virtual worlds 192
volunteer 16; on America Online 33, 37,
48, 106; fan 108–9
vox populi 19
wage labor 217
Wall Street Journal 151
warcraftmovies.com 195
Wark, McKenzie 4, 8
The Wealth of Nations (Smith) 87
web: class and215–20; participatory
212–15; platforms 212–14; server 48
web 2.0 211
website, user involvement in 48
"Whatever"130
“whateverbeing”129–30, 139, 141
Whateverlife.com 127
Whitehead, Alfred114, 116-17
Wiener, Norbert2, 168
WikiLeaks 221, 233-4

Wikipedia 7, 221-2
Williams, Dmitri 191
Williams, Raymond 221
Wired magazine 50, 88–9
word cloud 143-4
work: feminization of 24, 30; gladsome 26; play distinction from 2, 20, 159
workday 26
worker: cognitive 93; entities owned by 7; guest 5, 92; knowledge 37, 39–40; mobile 29–30; player- 193, 199
workplaces, distributed 20–2
workshops, high tech 28
workweek 26
World of Warcraft 6,187; beauty of194; end-user license agreement of 194; gold farmingin 192; growth of 188; guilds in 191; as virtual sweatshop 199
Wright, Erik 154-5
writer,freelance 13-14
Writers Guild of America22–3
writing 167–9

Yee, Nick 197
“Yi Shan Guan” (Yee) 197
YouTube 110,195,212–14
Zehle, Soenke 7
Zuckerberg, Mark 6

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