Digital Labor The Internet as Playground and Factory

曲曲曲

THE INTERNET AS PLAYGROUND AND FACTORY

EDITED BY TREBOR SCHOLZ

Digital Labor

Digital Labor calls on the reader to examine the shifting sites of labor markets to the Internet through the lens of their political, technological, and historical making. Internet users currently create most of the content that makes up the web: they search, link, tweet, and post updates—leaving their “deep” data exposed. Meanwhile, governments listen in, and big corporations track, analyze, and predict users’ interests and habits.

This unique collection of essays provides a wide-ranging account of the dark side of the Internet. It claims that the divide between leisure time and work has vanished so that every aspect of life drives the digital economy. The book reveals the anatomy of playbor (play/labor), the lure of exploitation and the potential for empowerment. Ultimately, the 14 thought-provoking chapters in this volume ask how users can politicize their troubled complicity, create public alternatives to the centralized social web, and thrive online.

Trebor Scholz is Associate Professor of Culture and Media at The New School.

Digital Labor

The Internet as Playground and Factory

Edited by Trebor Scholz

ROUTLEDGE Routledge Taylor & Francis Group

NEW YORK AND LONDON

First published 2013

by Routledge

711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017

Simultaneously published in the UK

by Routledge

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2013 Taylor & Francis

The right of the editor to be identified as the author of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Digital labor : the Internet as playground and factory / edited by Trebor Scholz.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

1. Internet–Social aspects. 2. Information society.

I. Scholz, Trebor.

HM851.D538 2013

302.23’1–dc23

2012012133

ISBN: 978-0-415-89694-8 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-415-89695-5 (pbk) ISBN: 978-0-203-14579-1 (ebk)

Typeset in ApexBembo by Apex CoVantage, LLC

Contents

Acknowledgments
Introduction: Why Does Digital Labor Matter Now?
Trebor Scholz
PART I The Shifting Sites of Labor Markets
1 In Search of the Lost Paycheck
Andrew Ross
2 Free Labor
Tiziana Terranova
3 The Political Economy of Cosmopolis
Sean Cubitt
4 Considerations on a Hacker Manifesto
McKenzie Wark
PART II Interrogating Modes of Digital Labor
5 Return of the Crowds: Mechanical Turk and Neoliberal
States of Exception
Ayhan Aytes
6 Fandom as Free Labor
Abigail De Kosnik
7 The Digital, Labor, and Measure Beyond Biopolitics
Patricia Ticineto Clough
8 Whatever Blogging
Jodi Dean
PART III The Violence of Participation
9 Estranged Free Labor

Mark Andrejevic

10 Digitality and the Media of Dispossession Jonathan Beller

11 Don’t Hate the Player, Hate the Game: The Racialization of Labor in World of Warcraft
Lisa Nakamura

PART IV Organized Networks in an Age of Vulnerable Publics

12 Thesis on Digital Labor in an Emerging P2P Economy Michel Bauwens

13 Class and Exploitation on the Internet Christian Fuchs

14 Acts of Translation: Organized Networks as Algorithmic Technologies of the Common
Ned Rossiter and Soenke Zehle

Further Reading

Contributors

Index

Many thanks go to a great many people. I am indebted to my colleagues at The New School, a university in New York City, who have generously and enthusiastically supported my work, specifically The Politics of Digital Culture conference series that I started there in 2009.

Nearly three years have passed since I convened The Internet as Playground and Factory conference that led to the publication of this book. I wish to recognize and thank the participants of this conference who have contributed chapters to this book.

I would like to particularly thank my colleague McKenzie Wark for his intellectual fire and many helpful critical comments. Also working with Erica Wetter at Routledge has been a pleasure.

I would like to thank the following friends and colleagues, for thought-provoking debates, challenging and constructive comments, practical help with the conference, and putting this book together: Frank Pasquale, Neil Gordon, Gabriella Coleman, Shannon Mattern, Laura De Nardis, Mark Greif, Sven Travis, Joel Towers, Jenny Perlin and the students in my spring 2012 seminar “Play and Toil in the Digital Sweatshop.”

In addition, I would also like to thank the members of the mailing list of the Institute for Distributed Creativity for the sixmonth-long pre-conference discussion on the commercial geographies of unsung digital labor, value, and the fight for fairness and economic democracy.

I dedicate this book to the memory of my grandmother Herta Fritzsche, who was born in 1917 and labored as a home worker most of her life.

R. Trebor Scholz

Acknowledgments

Introduction

Why Does Digital Labor Matter Now?

Trebor Scholz

In 2009, the Internet as Playground and Factory conference at The New School, a university in New York City with a rich history of critical theory and student activism, asked whether Marxist labor theory, with its concept of exploitation of labor, is still applicable to emerging modes of value capture on the Internet. This book is a result of this international conference that I convened.

What does it mean to be a digital worker today? The Internet has become a simple-to-join, anyone-can-play system where the sites and practices of work and play increasingly wield people as a resource for economic amelioration by a handful of oligarchic owners. Social life on the Internet has become the “standing reserve,” the site for the creation of value through ever more inscrutable channels of commercial surveillance. This inquiry has important ramifications for struggles around privacy, intellectual property rights, youth culture, and media literacy.

To this collection of essays the authors bring a common commitment to understanding the complex implications of new forms of waged and unwaged digital labor. Throughout this publication, you will find the consistent analysis of digital labor as a continuation of the social relations surrounding the traditional work-place. While also exploring discontinuities, shifts of labor markets to the Internet are described as an intensification of traditional economies of unpaid work.

Over the past six years, web-based work environments have emerged that are devoid of the worker protections of even the most precarious working-class jobs. Amazon.com’s Mechanical Turk is only one example. These are new forms of labor but old forms of exploitation. There are no minimum wages or health insurance, and so far federal and state regulators have not intervened. Digital labor matters; such underpaid, waged occupations must not be ignored when thinking about cognitive capitalism.

But several authors in this book are also thinking about unwaged labor, the activation of our behavior on the social web as monetizable labor. This argument is frequently challenged because in opposition to traditional labor, casual digital labor looks merely like the expenditure of cognitive surplus, the act of being a speaker within communication systems. It doesn’t feel, look, or smell like labor at all. This digital labor is much akin to those less visible, unsung forms of traditional women’s labor such as child care, housework, and surrogacy.

In 2011, the value of Facebook was pegged at \$100 billion, which can be linked to vast financial speculation but also the company’s collection of user data over a seven-year time span. Intimate forms of human sociability are being rendered profitable for Facebook, which makes it such a big-ticket company. Facebook sells its user data to its customers, which are mostly third-party advertisers. The social web appears to be free for us to use, but there are hefty social costs; oligarchs capture and financialize our productive expression and take flight with our data. We, the “users,” are sold as the product. The loss of our privacy, with all its psychological and political consequences, buys us the convenience of “free,” innovative services. All of life is put to work, unfairly harnessing implicit participation for wild profits. But can we really understand labor as a value-producing activity that is based on sharing creative expression? Harry Potter fans produce fan fiction and give their creative work away for free in exchange for being ignored by the corporation that owns the original content. Such unpaid labor practices also include “game modding” and the submission of “captchas.” Does it really make sense to think of these activities or the updating and “liking” of status updates as labor? Many contemporary discussions on productivity take as a starting point the ubiquity of pleasure online and relate this to the eroding distinction between work and play. Alexander Galloway writes that it is impossible to diferentiate cleanly between nonproductive leisure activity existing within the sphere of play and productive activity existing within the field of the workplace. On whichever side of this argument you may fall as a reader, the topic of digital labor is an invitation to dust of arguments about the perilous state of privacy, unequal wealth distribution, and the private exploitation of the public Internet. One significant event in this debate occurred in 1867, when Karl Marx distinguished between necessary labor time and surplus labor time. The former is labor that is entirely aimed at the worker’s survival, while the latter is meant to describe any additional labor time. In 1966, Norbert Wiener warned that responsive machines would intensify the exploitation of workers and even replace them altogether. In 1981, Dallas Smythe suggested that audiences are produced and sold to advertisers as a commodity. The audience, Smythe wrote, commits unpaid time and in return can watch a program along with ads. Twenty years later, Maurizio Lazzarato defined such immaterial labor as an activity that produces the cultural content of the commodity. Already in 2000, Tiziana Terranova examined new forms of capitalist exploitation of unwaged free labor, thinking about the viewers of broadcast media and the burgeoning Internet. Audience manufacture, a salient topic in the digital labor discussion, reached a first height in the 1920s, when radio started to establish commonalities among suburbanites across the United States. Communities that were previously connected through national newspapers started to bond over radio and, starting in the late 1940s and 1950s, over broadcast television. Also cinema

played a significant role in the capture of the masses and the creation of a common culture. Now, in the overdeveloped world, people are leaving behind their television sets— gradually but increasingly—in favor of communion with and through digital networks.

Beyond this historical context, Digital Labor: The Internet as Playground and Factory also contains the voices of those who are cautious of a discussion of digital labor altogether. Jonathan Beller and others remarked that we can fall victim to a technocratic fetishization of the Internet that takes away from a full acknowledgment of the “real” places of exploitation—namely the slums of economic developing countries. Digital labor in the overdeveloped world is contingent upon the sweat of exploited labor in countries such as China.¹

The focus on the Internet and the attendant issues of time theft and addiction may distract us from perhaps the most important issues of our time. Bluntly put, time spent on Facebook stops us from giving love and afection to others or from furthering projects that undermine capitalism. What’s more, many people still labor on farms and in factories, and let’s not forget the working poor, undocumented workers, and youth in rural areas for whom access to the Internet is not a given.

“The digital” does not sum up our entire condition. The essence of technology is not solely technological. But without falling for the fallacious rhetoric of “Twitter revolutions,” digital media have also been instrumental for social movements worldwide. It is time to rethink well-worn conceptions of the digital divide by acknowledging the unprecedented global turn in online sociability. While the 2 billion Internet users are indeed a global minority, the 5 billion people and their families who use cell phones are not. Facebook is becoming available on cell phones all across Africa, and it should be understood that digital labor is not just a predicament for the privileged few. Our silence will not save us from the tyranny of digital labor.