Critical Theory of Communication New Readings of Lukács, Adorno, Marcuse, Honneth and Habermas in the Age of the Internet

C H R I S T I A N F U C H S CRITICAL THEORY OF COMMUNICATION

New Readings of Lukács, Adorno, Marcuse, Honneth and Habermas in the Age of the Internet.

CDSMS

Critical Theory of Communication: New Readings of Lukács, Adorno, Marcuse, Honneth and Habermas in the Age of the Internet

Christian Fuchs

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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.16997/book1

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Contents

1. Introduction: Critical Theory of Communication: New Readings of

Lukács, Adorno, Marcuse, Honneth and Habermas in the Age of the
Internet 1
1.1. What is Critical Theory? 5
1.2. Critical Theory and Karl Marx 9
1.3. The Frankfurt School 22
1.4. Linking the Frankfurt School and other Critical Theories: Lev Vygotsky,
Valentin Vološinov, Ferruccio Rossi-Landi, and Raymond Williams 26
1.5. The Frankfurt School and Martin Heidegger’s Philosophy 31
1.6. The Chapters in this Book 39

1. Georg Lukács as a Communications Scholar: Cultural and Digital

Labour in the Context of Lukács’ Ontology of Social Being 47
2.1. Introduction 47
2.2. Work and Communication 52
2.3. Labour and Ideology 63
2.4. Conclusion 69

1. Theodor W. Adorno and the Critical Theory of Knowledge 75

3.1. Introduction 75
3.2. Adorno – A Media Pessimist? 76
3.3. Lukács and Adorno: The Theory of Art and Knowledge 83
3.4. The Dialectics of Knowledge 95
3.5. Conclusion 105

1. Herbert Marcuse and Social Media 111

4.1. Introduction 111
4.2. Herbert Marcuse and the Computer 114
4.3. Herbert Marcuse, Hegelian Dialectics and Social Media 116
4.4. Herbert Marcuse and Digital Labour on Social Media 124
4.5. Herbert Marcuse, Ideology and Social Media 131
4.6. Herbert Marcuse, the Logic of Essence and Social Media 137
4.7. Conclusion 145

1. The Internet, Social Media and Axel Honneth’s Interpretation of

Georg Lukács’ Theory of Reification and Alienation 153
5.1. Introduction 153
5.2. Lukács’ Theory of Reification and Alienation 154
5.3. Axel Honneth’s Interpretation of Lukács’ Concept of Reification in
the Critical Theory of Recognition 157
5.4. Towards a Materialist Theory of Morality as Theory of Co-operation
and Social Co-Production 163
5.5. The Media, Alienation and Morality 169
5.6. Conclusion 173

1. Beyond Habermas: Rethinking Critical Theories of

Communication 177
6.1. Introduction 177
6.2. Economic Reductionism: Alfred Sohn-Rethel 178
6.3. Cultural Reductionism: Jean Baudrillard 181
6.4. Labour/Communication Dualism: Jürgen Habermas 185
6.5. Towards a Dialectic of Labour and Communication: Lev Vygotsky,
Valentin Vološinov, Ferruccio Rossi-Landi, Raymond Williams 189
6.6. Towards a Dialectical Critical Theory of Communication 193

1. Conclusion 207

7.1. The Starting Point: Karl Marx 207
7.2. Georg Lukács: Teleological Positing 208
7.3. Theodor W. Adorno: The Dialectics of Knowledge 210
7.4. Herbert Marcuse: The Meta-Dialectic and the
Dialectical Logic of Essence 211
7.5. Axel Honneth Revisits Lukács’ History and Class Consciousness:
The Critical Theory of Recognition, Alienation and Reification 213
7.6. Beyond Jürgen Habermas’ Critical Theory of Communication 214
7.7. Towards a Dialectical Critical Theory of Communication 215
Index 221

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Contents

Introduction: Critical Theory of Communication: New Readings of Lukács, Adorno, Marcuse, Honneth and Habermas in the Age of the Internet

The task of this book is to provide new readings about how some specific works of authors related to the Frankfurt School matter for critically understanding communication today. It presents five essays that review aspects of the works of Georg Lukács, Theodor W. Adorno, Herbert Marcuse, Axel Honneth and Jürgen Habermas and applies these ideas for grounding foundations of a critical theory of communication in the age of the Internet and social media. Each chapter is dedicated to revisiting specific ideas of one of these thinkers. The book is intended as a reader on aspects of cultural Marxism in the digital age. The chapters can also be read independently.

The approach this book takes is that it a) discusses elements of specific critical theories and b) relates them to the topics of communication and the Internet. It thereby wants to contribute to a renewal and sublation of the critical theory of communication as a critical theory of society.

In this introduction, I first discuss elements of a critical theory of society (section 1.1). Second, I point out the importance of Karl Marx’s works for critical theory (section 1.2). Third, I provide some background on the Frankfurt School (section 1.3). Fourth, I argue that for a critical theory of communication it is a feasible approach to link the works of Frankfurt School to other critical cultural and social theories (section 1.4). Fifth, I comment on the relationship of the Frankfurt School and Heidegger (section 1.5). Finally, I provide an overview of this book’s chapters (section 1.6).

CHAPTER 1

How to cite this book chapter: Fuchs, Christian. 2016. Critical Theory of Communication. Pp. 1–46. London: University of Westminster Press. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.16997/book1.a. License: CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0

The Frankfurt School is one of the traditions in Marxist theory that has drawn our attention to the importance of studying culture. It does so with profound engagements with ideology, the culture industry and communication. In the twenty-first century, digital culture and digital communication have become important phenomena. It is therefore an interesting task to revisit some of the writings of Frankfurt School thinkers in the light of these developments. This book is not an introduction to critical theory, a textbook or a historical account. Rather, it focuses on some selected key areas of critical theory as building blocks for the foundations of a critical theory of communication that goes beyond Habermas.

Werner Bonefeld, Richard Gunn and Kosmas Psychopedis (1992) argue in the introduction to the first volume of the three-part collected volume Open Marxism, that with the rise of neoliberalism and postmodern thought, it became fashionable in the 1980s to turn against Marxism and criticise it as outdated, old-fashioned, reductionist, deterministic, and a closed system of thought. They question this tendency and argue for open Marxism as a methodological approach. Open Marxism sees the ‘openness of Marxist categories themselves’ (Bonefeld, Gunn and Psychopedis, 1992, xi).

“Closed Marxism” is Marxism which does either or both of two interrelated things: it accepts the horizons of a given world as its own theoretical horizon and/or it announces a determinism which is causalist or teleological as the case may be (xii).

They mention Adorno and Lukács as two of the figures in the tradition of open Marxism (Bonefeld, Gunn and Psychopedis, 1992, xii).

The Open Marxism project does not aim to reconstruct Marx’s thought, in the sense of presenting an interpretation which masquerades as the sole ‘correct’ one. Such an approach would not be helpful, for it would presuppose the possibility of a uniform and finished interpretation of Marx’s work (Bonefeld, Gunn, Holloway and Psychopedis 1995, 1).

Comparable to Bonefeld, Gunn, Holloway and Psychopedis, Wolfgang Fritz Haug (1985) argues for plural Marxism, a project that is based on the dialectic of unity and diversity (Haug 1985, 12).

Marxism does not simply exist, but is becoming. Marxism can only exist as process. Marxism’s truth cannot be organised in a number of phrases, but only in the process of the inconclusive engagement of diferences with each other. […] Marxism is not a given, there are Marxisms. Marxism exists in the plural. […] [Marxism requires] convergence in divergence. (Haug 1985, 20)

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Critical Theory of Communication

In contemporary society, we have witnessed a certain revitalised interest in Marx, the critique of class and capitalism, and socialism. The basic trigger of this interest was the global economic crisis. In this situation, we need an open cultural Marxism in three respects. If one looks at contemporary Marxist discussions, publications and conferences, then issues relating to communication and culture are often treated as having minor, secondary importance and as having mere superstructural character. At the same time, it is, however, dificult to deny the significant role of cultural labour and communications in contemporary society. Countering dominant trends, I have argued for a media and communication studies-focused reading of Marx and Marxism (Fuchs 2016).

First, open cultural Marxism can revisit some of the contributions to cultural Marxism in an open manner. The Frankfurt School is an important tradition in cultural Marxism. One should, however, not reify particular traditions or thinkers, but practice an open conversation between various Marxist approaches. Marxists still often like to treat themselves mutually as their worst enemies, accusing each other, for example, of interpreting Marx incorrectly, not having understood this or that aspect of Marx or another critical approach, not being Marxist at all, being orthodox Marxists, etc. They forget who their real political and theoretical opponents are. Where one should expect comradely behaviour, one sometimes only encounters dogmatism and sectarianism.

The second dimension of open cultural Marxism is that it is time for Marxism to open up further to culture and communication as theoretical and political issues that matter in contemporary capitalism. In this book, the focus is on particular topics and categories in cultural Marxism: Lukács’ concept of cultural work and ideological labour (chapter 2), Adorno’s critical dialectical theory of knowledge (chapter 3), Marcuse’s dialectics as foundation for the analysis of social media’s dialectics (chapter 4), Lukács’ and Honneth’s concepts of alienation and reification in the context of Facebook (chapter 5), Habermas and the dialectical critical theory of communication (chapter 6). The book suggests that knowledge, culture, communication, work, labour, ideology, alienation, reification and dialectics are some of the key categories for the foundations of a dialectical critical theory of communication. It does not have the aim to formulate such a theory, but rather provides readings that contribute to its foundations.

Critical theory is itself dialectical, which means that each new contribution relates to older contributions and sublates them in a constructive manner. A critical theory is therefore not a closed universe, but an open endeavour that cross-references other critical approaches. The six chapters in this book therefore also put some of the discussed approaches into dialogue: chapter 1 focuses not just on Lukács, but also points out Adorno’s and Lukács’ diferent understandings of ontology, as well as Habermas’ interpretation of Lukács. The chapter on Adorno (chapter 2) includes a discussion of how Adorno and Lukács’ aesthetic theories difer. It also relates Adorno’s contributions to a theory of knowledge to Habermas’ distinction of three forms of knowledge. The chapter on Honneth (chapter 4) includes a comparison of Honneth’s concept of alienation to the ones by Rahel Jaeggi and Hartmut Rosa, two other contemporary critical theorists. It shows how Honneth bases his notion of alienation on Lukács’ History and Class Consciousness. Based on this discussion, I develop multidimensional concepts of alienation and appropriation that are grounded in the works of Marx, Lukács and Honneth.

Introduction: Critical Theory of Communication

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Questioning this approach, this book does not argue for a reification of the Frankfurt School, but rather for an open dialogue in cultural Marxism that opens up debates and lines of communication between thinkers related to the Frankfurt School and other cultural Marxists such as Raymond Williams, Lev Vygotsky, Valentin Vološinov, or Ferruccio Rossi-Landi.

Third, this book also wants to open up Marxist discussion in respect to the way we engage with the works of thinkers in cultural Marxism. It argues for seeing the rich character of cultural Marxism and to not only focus on single works that have acquired a cult status. There are alternative, lesser-known works of cultural Marxism that are very rich and can, just like the most recognised writings, inspire contemporary debates. In respect to Lukács and Adorno, most readers first and foremost think of History and Class Consciousness (Lukács 1923/1971) and The Culture Industry: Enlightenment as Mass Deception (Horkheimer and Adorno 2002, 94–136) when hearing these names. Focusing only on single works does not do justice to the richness, plurality and complexity of the writings of key figures in cultural Marxism. This book also seeks to stimulate the engagement with lesser-known texts in cultural Marxism.

It should not be a disappointment for the reader to hear that this book is not predominantly a re-engagement with these two works. Rather, I want to open up the debate by drawing your attention to alternative, lesser-known works, such as Lukács’ Ontology of Social Being, Adorno’s Hegel: Three Studies, and Adorno’s On Subject and Object. There is a danger that the focus on single, well-known works reduces the engagement with cultural Marxism to a one-dimensional, reified and stereotypical analysis. In respect to Lukács and Adorno, it is certainly true that their major works are key readings for understanding ideology.

My point in the book at hand is that the tradition of the Frankfurt School has broader relevance for a critical theory of culture and communication and is not limited to ideology critique. For example, Lukács’ alternative works also help us to frame cultural labour and Adorno’s alternative works can inspire a critical theory of knowledge. Cultural Marxism should be open for an engagement with alternative works. Lukács’ Ontology generalises his theory of reification, which he formulated in History and Class Consciousness, into a cultural materialist and dialectical critical theory of society. It is a key work for a critical theory of culture and communication. Those interested in History and Class Consciousness will be pleased to hear that chapter 5 in this book starts of with a discussion of this work and engages with the way Axel Honneth interpreted Lukács’ concept of reification for a critical theory of recognition.

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Critical Theory of Communication

1.1. What is Critical Theory?

1.1.1. Definitions of Critical Theory

Lash (2002) distinguishes between dialectical critique based on Hegel and Marx and aporetic critique based on Kant and influenced by poststructuralism. Tyson (2006) identifies the following types of critical theories: psychoanalytic criticism, Marxist criticism, feminist criticism, new criticism, reader-response criticism, structuralist criticism, deconstructive criticism, new historical and cultural criticism, lesbian, gay and queer criticism, African-American criticism, postcolonial criticism. Tallack (1995) lists the following critical approaches: Marxism, structuralism/poststructuralism, psychoanalytical theory, feminism, post-foundational ethics/ politics. Agger (2006) speaks of critical theories in the plural and thereby means approaches such as postmodernist theory, the Frankfurt School, feminist theory and cultural studies.

Some scholars understand critical theory as the works of the Frankfurt School, a tradition of critical thinking that originated in the works of scholars like Herbert Marcuse, Max Horkheimer, and Theodor W. Adorno (Held 1980; Wiggershaus 1995). Its starting point is the work of Karl Marx (Held 1980, 15; Macey 2001, 75; Payne 1997: 118; Rush 2004, 9; Wiggershaus 1995, 5). For Horkheimer and his colleagues, critical theory ‘was a camouflage label for “Marxist theory”’ (Wiggershaus 1995, 5) when they were in exile from the Nazis in the USA, where they were concerned about being exposed as communist thinkers and therefore took care in the categories they employed. There are definitions of Critical Theory that couple the usage of this term exclusively to the Frankfurt School or Habermasian Frankfurt School (see for example: Forst 1999, 143; Honneth 2007, 72).

1.1.2. Marxist Encyclopaedias

The entry for Kritische Theorie (Critical Theory) in the Europäische Enzyklopädie zu Philosophie und Wissenschaften (European Encyclopaedia of Philosophy and Science), a four-volume Marxist encyclopaedia of philosophy edited by Hans Jörg Sandkühler (1990), only provides a cross-reference to the entry Frankfurter Schule (Frankfurt School), which means that this volume assumes an identity of the terms ‘critical theory’ and the ‘Frankfurt School’. A second Marxist encyclopaedia has taken a diferent approach: Gerhard Schweppenhäuser and Frigga Haug have written the entry ‘Kritische Theorie’ (Critical Theory) in the Historisch-Kritisches Wörterbuch des Marxismus (Historical-Critical Dictionary of Marxism), the largest encyclopaedic project of Marxist thought (see http://www.inkrit.de/hkwm/hkwm-index.htm).

Introduction: Critical Theory of Communication

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